hough the War of 1812 was dubbed “Mr. Madison’s War,” his role in the prosecution of the war was relatively ineffectual. Elected in 1808, President James Madison was intimately familiar with the ongoing diplomatic and trade conflicts with Britain. As Secretary of State under President Jefferson, he was the principal architect of the “restrictive system” of trade embargos designed to force Britain to relax its control of Atlantic trade. Madison’s support of this failed system lasted well into the war itself.
Madison’s attempts to resolve disagreements with Britain peacefully was viewed by some in his own Republican party as a sign of weakness. A group of pro-war Republicans, led by Speaker of the House Henry Clay, argued that military force was the only option left to combat British imperiousness. These “War Hawks” were not a majority of the party, but over time, their influence acted on more skeptical party members.
President Madison eventually did bring a declaration of war to Congress, but his leadership in planning for war was mostly absent. Republican ideology was intensely skeptical of the concept of a national standing army, preferring to rely on state militias, and the Madison administration, following in the footsteps of Jefferson, did much to starve national military forces of men and material support. His influence on Congress was minimal, and in retrospect, it is hard to understand how he, or the War Hawks for that matter, felt that the United States had the necessary military resources to prosecute a war on multiple fronts.
The best mood to describe the world when the cold war has ended is optimistic.
Optimistic for a new future without war, to live free, make decisions and see the world.
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eThe overland journey–across mountains, plains, rivers and deserts–was risky and difficult, and many westward migrants instead chose to travel by sea, taking the six-month route around Cape Horn at the tip of South America, or risking yellow fever and other diseases by crossing the Isthmus of Panama and traveling via ...
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The first of three Reconstruction Amendments after the Civil War; it was passed in 1865 in order to permanently and irreversibly ban and forbid slavery in the territory of the United States except when used to punish a criminal offense irrespective of the offender’s race.
It applies to the actions of private citizens and is currently used to forbid and prevent sex-trafficking and/or any kind of slavery or indentured servitude.
Most significantly, religions provide the crucial outlets and scales of integrity and transparency, guilt and reverence, restraint and remorse, redress and reconciliation that every society requires for a human rights regime to survive and succeed.
