caliph: a title taken by Muslim rulers that assert religious authority. This was the name of the Muslim rulers of the ancient Empires in the Middle East and the North of Africa. Caliphs were believed to be the sucessors of prophet Muhammad.
infidel: someone who has no belief in one particular religion Extreme manifestations of Islam, such as islamic terrorist claim to fight against infildels. Mostly this is a pejorative a term specifically used by those extreme followers of the Muslim religion to refer to non-Muslims.
mosque: a Muslim house of worship
pagan: someone who does not follow one of the world's main religions: Christianism, Judaism, Islam, Hinduism or Buddism.
polity: a particular form of government that exists within a state. It refers to the existence of politics and a particular form of goverment in the different states.
schism: the division of a group into antagonistic factions. It is a term that has been usually employed along history when referring to divisions between people who believe in the same religion, resulting many times in different branches of the cult.
Paine had hold out the following : 1) positive belief 2) He wanted to try to avoid war calamities 3) He thought that god would not abandon the american people. Hope this helps!:)
Charles I was born in<em> 19, November 1600</em>, He was the second son of James VI of Scotland and James I of England, and Anne of Denmark. <em>He ruled his kingdom for 11 years without calling a Parliament</em> because of the discontent he had with the last fourth Parliaments. In order to raise money for the war against Scotland Charles I summoned a Parliament, later known as the Short Parliament, because the war was long and he needed to ask for money continuously he summoned another Parliament (The Long Parliament) <em>The Parliament then forced the king to agree that it could not be dissolved.</em> <em>He lost a long bloody Civil War against forces loyal to Parliament</em>and <em>was charged with high treason</em>, even though he refused to recognize the legality of the court, he was executed on <em>January 30, 1649. </em>
Oliver Cromwell
Oliver Cromwell was born on April 25, 1599. He was was a member of the Parliament after the Civil War ended. After the dead of Charles I, there were rebellions in favor of the future King Charles II,<em>Cromwell conquered Ireland and established the Commonwealth</em> (England was declared a republic, also known as Commonwealth). <em>Cromwell became head of state as Lord Protector</em> in December 1653, and shared political power with Parliament and Council of State.
Charles II
Charles II was the eldest son of Charles I, while England became a republic when the civil war ended, Scotland invited and proclaimed him as their King, Cromwell defeated the Scots, so Charles II spent his next nine years in exile, He was invited back to London and <em>was crowned king after a period of commonwealth rule in England. </em>
James II
He was the second son of <em>Charles I</em>, named Duke of York, and Duke of Albany. When Charles II died he became<em> King of England and Ireland</em> from 1685 to 1688, and<em> King of Scotland</em> from 1685 to 1689.(James II was the last Stuart monarch in the direct male line) He tried to force Protestant England to become Catholic, <em>appointing Catholics as government officials and recruited them in the army, and</em>was forced to resign his rule during the Glorious Revolution in 1688.
Mary II
Mary II was the oldest daughter of James II, she was born on April 30, 1662. <em>Mary grew as a Protestant</em> even though her parents were Catholic, she married her cousin William of Orange (a leader of Protestantism in Europe) and settled in Holland, after the<em> Glorious Revolutio</em>n where she sided with her husband to attack her father James II <em>she ascended the English throne as a joint monarch after accepting the Bill of Rights. </em>She was Queen of England, Ireland and Scotland from 1689 until her dead.
Poland was created by the allies after WW1 and after Hitler reclaimed Germany and consolidated power, relations were strained too much to allow any more appeasement. Especially since Poland was an independent nation allied to France and Britain.