1. The adverb that modifies the verb is c) ever. Without it, it wouldn't be completely clear as to which time frame the speaker refers to. It may have been for example the last year, or in some other particular moment.
2. The adverb that modifies the verb is b) always. It adds to the sense of urgency of wearing a life jacket when rafting. Without it, the meaning of this sentence wouldn't be so precise.
The first European novel is generally considered to be Don Quijote. It is a Spanish novel written by Miguel de Cervantes, considered by many to be the creator of the modern novel way back in the 17th century.