“Climatic conditions help to shape various ecosystems and habitats around the globe. A particular climate can be a boon to one species and a devastation to another. As the climate changes, species and ecosystems respond by adapting, migrating, or reducing their population. Gradual shifts in the climate are easier to adapt to than abrupt swings, and this is certainly true for humans as well as other species. Studies of Earth's climatic history indicate that climates have changed in the past and resulted in dramatic shifts in ecosystems. The most recent geological period the Holocene (about last 10,000 years), however, has been unusually stable.”
The earth’s atmosphere is composed of (in order from lowest of highest);
- Troposphere
- Stratosphere
- Mesosphere
- Thermosphere
- Exosphere
The density of the molecules of air reduce with increase in altitude. Therefore the higher layers have low air density that those below them.
The exosphere (the outermost layer) extends to outer space and is composed of lighter gases such as helium, hydrogen, carbon dioxide and atomic oxygen.
The rest of the layers consist of molecular oxygen, atomic oxygen, molecule nitrogen, atomic nitrogen, and hydrogen.
The thermosphere has a temperature inversion – increase in temperatures with altitude. This is due to absorption of UV by the ozone layer; the highest ozone layers absorb most of the UV.
<em><u>Explanation:</u></em>
Except when it serves a descriptive purpose, farm management is the science (and art) of optimizing the use of resources in the farm component of farm-households, i.e., in systems of Order Level 10 (see Figure 1.2), and of achieving the optimal functioning of these systems in relation to household-specified objectives; and since Order Level 10 systems consist structurally of subsystems, farm management is also concerned with the operation of subservient subsystems of Order Levels 1 to 9 in such fashion as to optimize the whole-farm system. However, for reasons discussed in Chapter 1, it is often essential, especially when dealing with small farms, that farm management extends also to the family or household component, thus its true scope extends to Order Level 12 systems. A second consideration is that the village is sometimes a more relevant unit for analysis than the farm, and where this is so the scope of 'farm' management extends to systems of Order Levels 1 to 13
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In an attempt to stabilize the turbulent political situation in Afghanistan, the Soviet Union sends 75,000 troops to enforce the installation of Babrak Karmal as the new leader of the nation. The new government and the imposing Soviet presence, however, had little success in putting down antigovernment rebels. Thus began nearly 10 years of an agonizing, destructive, and ultimately fruitless Soviet military intervention in Afghanistan.
Ironically, Karmal overthrew and murdered another Afghan communist, Hafizullah Amin, to take power. Amin’s government became unpopular and unstable after it attempted to install a harsh communist regime, declared one-party rule and abolished the Afghan constitution. Muslims in the nation rejected his rule and formed a rebel force, the Mujahideen. When it became apparent that Amin could not control the rebellion, Soviet troops intervened and put a puppet ruler, Karmal, into power. For the Soviets, political turbulence in this bordering nation, which was viewed by some officials as a potentially useful ally pursuing its interests in the Middle East, was unacceptable.
The Soviet intervention cost Russia dearly. The seemingly endless civil war in Afghanistan resulted in thousands of Soviet dead and untold monetary costs. It also brought an abrupt end to the era of détente between the United States and the Soviet Union that began during the Nixon years. In response to the Soviet intervention, President Jimmy Carter withdrew the SALT II agreement from consideration by Congress. The treaty, which had been signed in June 1979, was designed to establish parity in nuclear delivery vehicles between the United States and the Soviet Union. Carter also halted grain shipments to the Soviet Union and ordered a U.S. boycott of the 1980 Olympics that were to be held in Moscow.
