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clearest connection between Asia and North America, up in the Arctic, ... The idea of an Atlantic crossing has also gained some traction.
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Towards the end of the 1780s Tecumseh, together with his brother Elskwatawa or Tenskwatawa, who was called "the prophet", created an alliance of the native peoples against the expansion of the American colonists in the territories of the great lakes, north of the Midwest and the Ohio River Valley. The alliance suffered some changes over time, but was formed by several important Indian peoples.
In September 1809, William Henry Harrison, governor of the newly formed Indiana Territory, negotiated the Fort Wayne Treaty in which a delegation of Indians yielded 3 million acres (12,000 km²) of Native American territory to the government of the United States. U.S. The negotiations of the treaty were questionable since they did not have the support of the then US President James Madison, and involved what some historians have compared with a bribe, consisting of the offer of large subsidies to the tribes and chiefs involved, and the previous distribution, among the indigenous participants, of copious amounts of liquor before the negotiations to "dispose the temperaments" to them.
Tecumseh's opposition to the landmark Fort Wayne Treaty marked the emergence of the Shawnee warrior as an outstanding leader and earned him the respect of several tribes. Although Tecumseh and his people, the Shawnees had no claim to the land sold, the indigenous leader was alarmed by the massive sale, since many of the followers who accompanied him in his capital Prophetstown ("Town of the Prophet"), belonged to the tribes Piankeshaw, Kikapú and Wea, which were habitual moradores of the tramposamente negotiated land. As an argument, Tecumseh revived an idea exposed in previous years by the Shawnee leader, Blue Jacket, and by the Mohawk leader, Joseph Brant, according to which Indian land was common property of all tribes, and no fraction of it could be sold. without the consent of all, or only by decision of a few.
Plastic is a word that originally meant “pliable and easily shaped.” It only recently became a name for a category of materials called polymers. The word polymer means “of many parts,” and polymers are made of long chains of molecules. Polymers abound in nature. Cellulose, the material that makes up the cell walls of plants, is a very common natural polymer.
Over the last century and a half humans have learned how to make synthetic polymers, sometimes using natural substances like cellulose, but more often using the plentiful carbon atoms provided by petroleum and other fossil fuels. Synthetic polymers are made up of long chains of atoms, arranged in repeating units, often much longer than those found in nature. It is the length of these chains, and the patterns in which they are arrayed, that make polymers strong, lightweight, and flexible. In other words, it’s what makes them so plastic.
These properties make synthetic polymers exceptionally useful, and since we learned how to create and manipulate them, polymers have become an essential part of our lives. Especially over the last 50 years plastics have saturated our world and changed the way that we live.
The First Synthetic Plastic
The first synthetic polymer was invented in 1869 by John Wesley Hyatt, who was inspired by a New York firm’s offer of $10,000 for anyone who could provide a substitute for ivory. The growing popularity of billiards had put a strain on the supply of natural ivory, obtained through the slaughter of wild elephants. By treating cellulose, derived from cotton fiber, with camphor, Hyatt discovered a plastic that could be crafted into a variety of shapes and made to imitate natural substances like tortoiseshell, horn, linen, and ivory.
This discovery was revolutionary. For the first time human manufacturing was not constrained by the limits of nature. Nature only supplied so much wood, metal, stone, bone, tusk, and horn. But now humans could create new materials. This development helped not only people but also the environment. Advertisements praised celluloid as the savior of the elephant and the tortoise. Plastics could protect the natural world from the destructive forces of human need.
The creation of new materials also helped free people from the social and economic constraints imposed by the scarcity of natural resources. Inexpensive celluloid made material wealth more widespread and obtainable.
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Political Institution: Augustus changed the <u>Roman government from an ineffective republic to the principate, by retaining the important powers that were invested in him by the senate during his war with Antony</u>. They saw a threat to Roman power in their refusal to worship Roman gods and as a force of social division.
Military Institution: In regards to the common Roman, Augustus made some rather large and important changes to the military. Previously, the Roman army was an Greek/Italian style army made up by the common man. The average Roman soldier would be a volunteer who might have been a farmer or artisan in everyday life, was untrained, and would serve for around 10 years. Under Augustus, the Roman army was transformed into a true, professional army. <u>Roman legionnaires were highly trained and served for closer to 20 years.</u> Since the army is still made of volunteers, Augustus needed convince young Romans to dedicate their working life to the army. Thankfully for him, his entire reformation process was based around centralizing the Roman focus to the needs of the state, so he was already on his way to building a massively strong army. However on top of that he enacted a few laws that provided benefits for soldiers in the Roman army. For example, <u>Augustus set aside a portion of the Roman treasury for the military treasury, which provided financial support such as pensions for the troops (“Augustan Army Reforms”).</u> With more reason to join the army, Roman men jumped on the opportunity, and once again followed along with the visions of Augustus.
Social Institution: <u>Augustus also enacted social reforms as a way to improve morality.</u> He felt particularly strong about encouraging families to have children and discouraging adultery. As such, he politically and financially rewarded families with three or more children, especially sons. This incentive stemmed from his belief that there were too few legitimate children born from “proper marriages.” On the other hand, he penalized unmarried men older than 38 years old by imposing on them an additional tax that others did not have to pay. They were also debarred from receiving inheritances and attending public games. Augustus also felt that people should not interact with or, especially, marry those outside of their own social class. As such, he created laws that reinforced hierarchical seating in the theatre and amphitheatre. For instance, front row seats were reserved for Senators, the next rows for equestrians, then the rest divided up for young men, soldiers, and so on.
Caesar failed because he was too focused on himself, Augustus succeeded because he turned his focus to the empire despite his manipulation of power.
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