The correct answer to this open question is the following.
Although the question has no options, we can say the following.
The thesis statement in chapter 1 of David Nirenberg's "Communities of Violence" is that aggressions and attacks over social classes, ethnicity, or race can be identified since the 14th century in the European Middle Ages. The author states that these forms of aggression can be found in the French and Spanish Royal courts. The aggressions were constant and violent against Jewish people, prostitutes, sick people, Muslims, and other minorities. He says that there were groups of people in power who directed these aggressions to maintain control over the people.
