According to Aristotle, the essence has its own possibilities because there was no deal no idea why he called this matter. But he had a strong believe in matters and essence that provided purpose for the concerned matter. He believed that it is essence that makes everything to be real. Movement form matter or formless was only complete thorough actualization.
There are different clauses that promote any movement, the formal clause, material, efficient and final clause. For example the material cause of the mind can be the matter that controls it.
To answer your first question, early Muslim women were treated with respect and had the same amount of rights as men. for example, they could own property, gain an education etc. for example, Khadijah the wife of Prophet Muhammad was a very successful businesswomen in trade.
second question: as Islam spread, people intertwined their culture with Islam. for example some people believe that in islam women are not allowed to pick their own husband and instead have an arranged marriage. however this is a cultural belief, common in places such as Bangladesh and Pakistan.
The president during 1812 was James Madison, his presidential term was 1809 to 1817.
