Yes, Kilwa was socially stratified.
The highest class was of the rulers who claimed direct Arab ancestry. They owned large plantations and controlled Indian Ocean trades.
The next was that of the Muslim-Swahili speakers who were mainly African. They were artisans and minor court officials.
The lowest class was of slaves who were non-Muslims. They worked on farms or estates or in production of cotton beads.
<span> The total number of pending civil cases and criminal defendants remained stable, rising less than 1 ...</span>
The effect of sharecroppers and debt peonage was that they were unable to pay off debts and fell deeper into debt. The weight of the debt bound the sharecropper to the landowner as completely as they had been bound by slavery.
Authority justifies a state's use of power over its citizens.
