The Second Great Awakening attracted hundreds of converts to new Protestant denominations thus led to a period of antebellum social reforms and emphasis on salvation by institutions. The awakening enrolled millions of new members leading to the formation of new denominations. The awakening was a reaction against deism, skepticism, and rational Christianity through evangelism.
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Born from the wartime hysteria of World War II, the internment of Japanese Americans is considered by many to be one of the biggest civil rights violations in American history. Americans of Japanese ancestry, regardless of citizenship, were forced from their homes and into relocation centers known as internment camps. The fear that arose after Japan's attack on Pearl Harbor created severe anti-Japanese prejudice, which evolved into the widespread belief that Japanese people in America were a threat to national security. On February 19, 1942, President Franklin D. Roosevelt signed Executive Order 9066, giving the government the power to begin relocation.
Executive Order 9066 placed power in the hands of a newly formed War Relocation Authority, the WRA. This government agency was tasked with moving all Japanese Americans into internment camps all across the United States. The War Relocation Authority Collection(link is external) is filled with private reports explaining the importance of relocation and documenting the populations of different camps. WRA Report No. 5 on Community Analysis prepares the reader for the different ways and reasons for which the "evacuees" might try to resist, and how to handle these situations.
This order of internment was met with resistance. There were Japanese Americans who refused to move, allowing themselves to be tried and imprisoned with the goal of overturning Executive Order 9066 in court. The Japanese American Internment Camp Materials Collection(link is external) showcases the trials of Gordon Hirabayashi and Minoru Yasui, two men who had violated the relocation order. In the case of Japanese-American Gordon Hirabayashi, an entire defense committee was created to garner funding and defend him in court. The case made it all the way to the Supreme Court, where the President's orders were declared constitutional and Hirabayashi was pronounced guilty. Minoru Yasui v. The United States met the same fate, with the justification that Yasui had renounced his rights as a citizen when he disobeyed the orders of the state.
While many fought this Order in the court system, non-Japanese Americans found other ways to voice their dissent. Church Groups provided boxed lunches for Japanese people as they left for internment camps, but even this simple act of charity was met with contempt. Letters and postcards from the Reverend Wendell L. Miller Collection(link is external) admonished one group of churchwomen, exclaiming that they were traitors for helping "the heathen" rather than the American soldiers fighting for their country. >
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The first and most important example of popular sovereignty is the Constitution itself. This is the very document that gives the common people power and protects their rights from an oppressive government and instead allows for one ruled by the people, for the people.
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The main purposes of the Counter-Reformation were to strengthen the Catholic Church against the threat of Protestantism (thus keeping Catholics from converting to Protestanitsm), and also to enact reforms that would eliminate corruption and correct some problems in the Catholic Church.
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The Catholic Reformation or Counter-Reformation in the 1500s was an effort by the Roman Catholic Church to strengthen itself in response to the Protestant Reformation. The Counter-Reformation included a number of features, such as:
- The formation of religious orders that aimed to build allegiance to Rome and the papacy, and to educate people in Catholic teaching. The Society of Jesus, known as the Jesuits for short, was a key order of this sort. The order was founded by Ignatius of Loyola in 1534, along with Francis Xavier and several others.
- The Roman Inquisition was founded in 1542 to act as an investigative body in regard to threats to Rome's teachings. About a century later, Galileo would be one of the most famous persons tried by the Roman Inquisition.
- The Council of Trent served to reform some abuses that were acknowledged by the Catholic Church, but mostly to assert the full authority of Roman power and doctrine over the Protestant threat. The Council of Trent held meetings over a span of years from 1545 to 1563. Some of the abuses addressed by the Council of Trent were simony and selling of indulgences. Simony was the practice of buying and selling church offices. The Council of Trent condemned such practices, which had been widely abused in the church and criticized by reformers. As for indulgences, the underlying principle of indulgences was upheld -- that the church had authority to grant reprieve to penance or time in purgatory. But the sale of indulgences was stopped. The church recognized that the selling of indulgences had been an abuse and determined to end that practice.
- Clergy education was recognized as a problem that needed attention in the Catholic Church. Seminaries were established and the Roman Catechism, also known as the Catechism of the Council of Trent, was commissioned by the Council and was published in 1566. The intention of these actions was thoroughly to improve the education of the church's clergy.
