Before the government provided welfare programs like home visits from social workers and food stamps, women reformers pioneered outreaches into poor, urban, and immigrant communities. Through their work in clubs, women established settlement houses that served as outposts to promote social welfare.
That was the election year of which madison became president and the year he defeated <span>Federalist candidate Charles Cotesworth Pinckney.</span>
Driven in part by economic concerns, and in part by frustration with the straitened social conditions of the South, in the 1870s African Americans began moving North and West in great numbers. In the 1890s, the number of African Americans moving to the Northeast and the Midwest was double that of the previous decade.
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