Answer:
Results
We systematically analyze and compare how different modelling methodologies can be used to describe translation. We define various statistically equivalent codon-based simulation algorithms and analyze the importance of the update rule in determining the steady state, an aspect often neglected. Then a novel probabilistic Boolean network (PBN) model is proposed for modelling translation, which enjoys an exact numerical solution. This solution matches those of numerical simulation from other methods and acts as a complementary tool to analytical approximations and simulations. The advantages and limitations of various codon-based models are compared, and illustrated by examples with real biological complexities such as slow codons, premature termination and feedback regulation. Our studies reveal that while different models gives broadly similiar trends in many cases, important differences also arise and can be clearly seen, in the dependence of the translation rate on different parameters. Furthermore, the update rule affects the steady state solution.
Conclusions
The codon-based models are based on different levels of abstraction. Our analysis suggests that a multiple model approach to understanding translation allows one to ascertain which aspects of the conclusions are robust with respect to the choice of modelling methodology, and when (and why) important differences may arise. This approach also allows for an optimal use of analysis tools, which is especially important when additional complexities or regulatory mechanisms are included. This approach can provide a robust platform for dissecting translation, and results in an improved predictive framework for applications in systems and synthetic biology.
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Answer:
Silent mutations do not affect protein function
Explanation:
A mutation is defined as any alteration in the genetic material of a cell of a living organism. Moreover, a silent mutation refers to any mutation that does not alter the phenotype of the cell/organism (they are evolutionary neutral mutations). Silent mutations are base substitutions that do not alter the amino acid sequence of the resulting protein, and therefore these mutations do not alter protein function.
Meiosis is a cellular division that produces four haploid daughter cells from a parent cell. It is observed in gametes/sex cells. The process of meiosis undergoes two consecutive divisions. Each division has five phases: prophase, metaphase, anaphase, telophase, and cytokinesis.
In Meiosis I, the chromosomes of the parent cells are multiplied. Each chromatid of the chromosomes exchanges genetic information, or <em>recombination</em>. The number of chromosomes at the end of Meiosis I is haploid but the chromatids of the chromosomes are still attached to each other. Due to recombination, the sister chromatids may not be identical to each other.
In Meiosis II, the chromosomes are separated and produce four daughter cells. It is shorter compared to Meiosis I because it no longer replicates the DNA or exchanges genetic information, and just separates the prepared chromatids from Meiosis I. It is similar to mitosis since it begins with a haploid cell and ends with a haploid cell.
Answer:
Ceiling
Explanation:
A situation in which the price charged for some marketed objects becomes more or less than the equilibrium price that is determined by market forces of demand and supply, is called Price Ceiling. Government often uses price ceiling to control the maximum selling price of commodities. By doing this, the commodities are made affordable for the public in country. In house rent market, price ceiling is of great importance.