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Option: d. a northern politician banished to the Confederacy.
Explanation:
Clement Vallandigham was a politician during the Civil War in America. He was born in Ohio in 29, July 1820. Vallandigham became a leader of the Copperhead known as anti-war Democrats. He gave his opinion against war to settle the differences between the South and the North. He was later banished to Confederacy by President Abraham Lincoln.
All the wars in his old country
The Tuskegee Study of Untreated Syphilis in the African American Male is the longest nontherapeutic experiment on human beings in medical history, as noted by Arthur L. Caplan (1992). Begun in 1932 by the United States Public Health Service (USPHS), the study was purportedly designed to determine the natural course of untreated latent syphilis in some 400 African American men in Tuskegee, Macon County, Alabama. The research subjects, all of whom had syphilis when they were enrolled in the study-contrary to the “urban myth” that holds “black men in Alabama were injected with the virus that causes syphilis” (Walker, 1992)-were matched against 200 uninfected subjects who served as a control group.
The subjects were recruited with misleading promises of “special free treatment,” which were actually spinal taps done without anesthesia to study the neurological effects of syphilis, and they were enrolled without their informed consent.
The subjects received heavy metals therapy, standard treatment in 1932, but were denied antibiotic therapy when it became clear in the 1940s that penicillin was a safe and effective treatment for the disease. When penicillin became widely available by the early 1950s as the preferred treatment for syphilis, this therapy was again withheld. On several occasions, the USPHS actually sought to prevent treatment.
The first published report of the study appeared in 1936, with subsequent papers issued every four to six years until the early 1970s. In l969, a committee at the federally operated Center for Disease Control decided the study should continue. Only in 1972, when accounts of the study first appeared in the national press, did the Department of Health, Education and Welfare (HEW) halt the experiment.
At that time, 74 of the test subjects were still alive; at least 28, but perhaps more than 100, had died directly from advanced syphilis. An investigatory panel appointed by HEW in August 1972 found the study “ethically unjustified” and argued that penicillin should have been provided to the men. As a result, the National Research Act, passed in 1974, mandated that all federally funded proposed research with human subjects be approved by an institutional review board (IRB). By 1992, final payments of approximately $40,000 were made to survivors under an agreement settling the class action lawsuit brought on behalf of the Tuskegee Study subjects. President Clinton publicly apologized on behalf of the federal government to the handful of study survivors in April 1997.
Several major ethical issues involving human research subjects need to be studied further. The first major ethical issue to be considered is informed consent, which refers to telling potential research participants about all aspects of the research that might reasonably influence their decision to participate. A major unresolved concern is exactly how far researchers’ obligations extend to research subjects. Another concern has to do with the possibility that a person might feel pressured to agree or might not understand precisely what he or she is agreeing to. The investigators took advantage of a deprived socioeconomic situation in which the participants had experienced low levels of care. The contacts were with doctors and nurses who were seen as authority figures.
Answer:
The prehistory of Mesopotamia begins during the Neolithic period, but the writing began with a pictographic script in Uruk IV period (CA. 4th millennium BCE).
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Answer:
The British colonization of the Americas describes the history of the establishment of control, settlement, and decolonization of the continents of the Americas by the Kingdom of England, the Kingdom of Scotland, and, after the union of those two countries in 1707, the Kingdom of Great Britain.[a] Colonization efforts began in the late 16th century with unsuccessful efforts by the Kingdom of England to establish colonies in North America, but the first permanent English colony was established in Jamestown in 1607.[1][2] Over the next several centuries more colonies were established in the Americas. While the vast majority have achieved independence, a few remain as British Overseas Territories.
North America had been inhabited by indigenous peoples for thousands of years of prior to 1492.[3] European exploration of North America began after Christopher Columbus's 1492 expedition across the Atlantic Ocean.[4] English exploration of the continent commenced in the late 15th century, and Sir Walter Raleigh established the short-lived Roanoke Colony in 1585.[5] The English established their first successful, permanent colony in North America at Jamestown in 1607 on the Chesapeake Bay, which eventually grew into the Colony of Virginia.[6][7] In 1620, a second permanent colony at Plymouth was founded, followed in 1630 by the Massachusetts Bay Colony. These settlements in present day Virginia and Massachusetts gave the English a foundation to establish more colonies and resulted in significantly increased settlement activity.[8][9] At conclusion of the Seven Years' War with France, Britain took control of the French colony of Canada and several colonial Caribbean territories.[10][11]
With the assistance of France and Spain, many of the North American colonies gained independence from Britain through victory in the American Revolutionary War, which ended in 1783. Historians sometimes refer to the British Empire after 1783 as the "Second British Empire"; this period saw Britain increasingly focus on Asia and Africa instead of the Americas, and increasingly focus on the expansion of trade rather than territorial possessions. Nonetheless, Britain continued to colonize parts of the Americas in the 19th century, taking control of British Columbia and establishing the colonies of the Falkland Islands and British Honduras. Britain also gained control of several colonies, including Trinidad and British Guiana, following the defeat of France in the Napoleonic Wars.
In the mid-19th century, Britain began the process of granting self-government to its remaining colonies in North America. Most of these colonies joined the Confederation of Canada in the 1860s or 1870s, though Newfoundland would not join Canada until 1949. Canada gained full autonomy following the passage of the Statute of Westminster 1931, though it retained various ties to Britain and still recognizes the British monarch as head of state. Following the onset of the Cold War most of the remaining British colonies in the Americas gained independence between 1962 and 1983. Many of the former British colonies are part of the Commonwealth of Nations, a political association chiefly consisting of former colonies of the British Empire.
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