The Mandate of Heaven or Tian Ming (Chinese: 天命; pinyin: Tiānmìng; Wade–Giles: T'ien-ming) is a Chinese political and religious doctrine used since ancient times to justify the rule of the King or Emperor of China. According to this belief, heaven (天, Tian)—which embodies the natural order and will of the universe—bestows the mandate on a just ruler of China, the "Son of Heaven" of the "Celestial Empire". If a ruler was overthrown, this was interpreted as an indication that the ruler was unworthy, and had lost the mandate. It was also a common belief among citizens that natural disasters such as famine and flood were signs of heaven's displeasure with the ruler, so there would often be revolts following major disasters as citizens saw these as signs that the Mandate of Heaven had been withdrawn.[1]
A brief flow chart describing the dynastic cycles in Imperial China on claiming to withdrawing the Mandate of Heaven
The Mandate of Heaven does not require a legitimate ruler to be of noble birth, depending instead on the just and able performance of the rulers and their heirs. Dynasties such as the Han and Ming dynasties were founded by men of common origins. The concept is in some ways similar to the European concept of the divine right of kings; however, unlike the European concept, it does not in theory confer an unconditional right to rule, despite this being exactly the case in practicality. The Mandate would in theory be a preoccupation in a ruler's lifetime, when he would hold onto the Mandate and live according to Heavens. Intrinsic to the concept of the Mandate of Heaven was the right of rebellion against an unjust ruler. Chinese historians interpreted a successful revolt as evidence that Heaven had withdrawn its mandate from the ruler. Throughout Chinese history, times of poverty and natural disasters were often taken as signs that heaven considered the incumbent ruler unjust and thus in need of replacement. The Mandate of Heaven was often invoked by philosophers and scholars in China as a way to curtail the abuse of power by the ruler. While each dynasty was not the same, they each had a lineage that passed on the prospective ruler by order of generational descent or their priority of birth. Many emperors during the imperial times would optimize to have many sons who could be candidates to fill the position after the current ruler has died. In addition Heaven was thought to be of how a ruler's works and performance was, which reflected upon how favorable they would be to Heaven.
Some Republicans did not want to upset the balance of government
Three causes of Great Schism:
- Mainly the Great Schism was caused by disputes over authority in the church.
- The East objected to the addition of the Latin word "filioque" (meaning "and the Son") to the Nicene Creed, in which churches in the West confessed that the Holy Spirit proceeded from the Father <u>and the Son</u> (rather than from the Father alone, as confessed in the East).
- The West objected to the worship given to icons in the Eastern churches.
There were points of doctrinal dispute (such as those I listed). Ultimately, though, the biggest reason was the struggle over authority in the church. In 1054 CE, there were mutual declarations of excommunication between the pope (in Rome) and the patriarch (in Constantinople) that resulted in what is known as "The Great Schism" -- a monumental split between the western church (the Roman Catholic Church and what has become known as the Eastern Orthodox Church. "Catholic" means universal -- the Roman pope was intent on asserting his leadership over all of Christendom. "Orthodox" means "right teaching." The Eastern patriarch and church were asserting their teachings to be right over against positions held in the West. There were a number of doctrinal issues debated hotly between East and West over the centuries leading up to final break between the two halves of the church. But more than anything, the split came down to "church power" -- who held control over the church.
Answer:
C
Explanation:
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