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Nitrification. The conversion of ammonium to nitrate is performed primarily by soil-living bacteria and other nitrifying bacteria. In the primary stage of nitrification, the oxidation of ammonium ( NH+4) is performed by bacteria such as the Nitrosomonas species, which converts ammonia to nitrites ( NO−2).
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Gymnosperms possess several key evolutionary innovations compared to earlier groups such as the clubmosses and ferns. They produce sperm-containing pollen, which is carried through the air by the wind to the female. This innovation has freed these plants from the need for water for sexual reproduction.
