Photosynthesis is a process used by plants and other organisms to convert light energyinto chemical energy that can later be released to fuel the organisms' activities. This chemical energy is stored in carbohydrate molecules, such as sugars, which are synthesized from carbon dioxide and water – hence the name photosynthesis, from the Greek φῶς, phōs, "light", and σύνθεσις, synthesis, "putting together".[1][2][3] In most cases, oxygen is also released as a waste product. Most plants, most algae, and cyanobacteria perform photosynthesis; such organisms are called photoautotrophs. Photosynthesis is largely responsible for producing and maintaining the oxygen content of the Earth's atmosphere, and supplies all of the organic compounds and most of the energy necessary for life on Earth.[4]
Although photosynthesis is performed differently by different species, the process always begins when energy from light is absorbed by proteins called reaction centresthat contain green chlorophyll pigments. In plants, these proteins are held inside organelles called chloroplasts, which are most abundant in leaf cells, while in bacteria they are embedded in the plasma membrane. In these light-dependent reactions, some energy is used to strip electrons from suitable substances, such as water, producing oxygen gas. The hydrogen freed by the splitting of water is used in the creation of two further compounds that serve as short-term stores of energy, enabling its transfer to drive other reactions: these compounds are reduced nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate(NADPH) and adenosine triphosphate (ATP), the "energy currency" of cells.
In plants, algae and cyanobacteria, long-term energy storage in the form of sugars is produced by a subsequent sequence of light-independent reactions called the Calvin cycle; some bacteria use different mechanisms, such as the reverse Krebs cycle, to achieve the same end. In the Calvin cycle, atmospheric carbon dioxide is incorporatedinto already existing organic carbon compounds, such as ribulose bisphosphate(RuBP).[5] Using the ATP and NADPH produced by the light-dependent reactions, the resulting compounds are then reducedand removed to form further carbohydrates, such as glucose.
Merocrine: merocrine sweat glands are widely distributed across the body surface,
Sebaceous glands are located where hair follicles have existed,
apocrine sweat glands are found only in a few areas like axilla. Apocrine -are restricted to specific areas like the axilla, nipple of the breast, pubic region and around the anus area etc.
</span>Amino acids are polymers that creates the macromolecule of proteins. To explain clearly there are two factors that determine the shape or structure of the proteins which is mainly influenced by the amino acids.
The two factors that determine the shape of a protein </span><span><span> 1. </span> Primary structure. The sequence of amino acids. Amino acids are the building blocks of protein. It is a strong of linearity that can be thousands in length. Moreover, the formation of the amino acid and its system is influenced by its genes’ nucleotides arrangement. </span> <span>2. Hence the next factor is how is the structure of the amino acids bended and folded with itself that forms the certain protein molecule and forms the larger complex structure</span><span> </span>
<span>Cytotoxic t-cell subpopulations are specialized to combat intracellular pathogens, whereas helper t-cell subpopulations are specialized to combat extracellular pathogens.
</span>Cytotoxic t-cell are CD8+ cells. Cytotoxic t-cell uses granzymes to <span>kill </span><span>intracellular bacteria, that lives in the cytosol such as viruses. They identify the pathogen forgein peptids that are bounded to MHC-I on the cell surface. </span> cd4+ T helper (Th) cells include Th1, Th2, and Th17 cells. They contribute to aliergic reactions and fighting extracellular parasites.
Molecular biotechnology is basically the study and alteration of nucleic acids and proteins in living organisms for various applications. It encompasses the different scientific fields of genetics, engineering, chemistry, microbiology, etc. Because of this, all of the given choices are methods of molecular biotechnology EXCEPT DNA profiling.
