The tidelands controversy between the United States and Texas involved
the title to 2,440,650 acres of submerged land in the Gulf of Mexico
between low tide and the state's Gulfward boundary three leagues (10.35
miles) from shore. Texas, first acquiring this land by establishing and
maintaining itself as an independent nation, reserved this as well as
all other unsold land when it entered the Union in 1845. Ownership of
the property by the state of Texas was recognized by officials of the
United States for more than 100 years. After oil was discovered under
state leases, applicants for cheaper federal leases and federal
officials began to assert national ownership in the same manner as they
had done against California and other coastal states. The contest was
not confined to Texas. All states became concerned over their
long-recognized titles to lands beneath their navigable waters. It
became a national issue, resulting in three Supreme Court decisions
against the states, three acts of Congress in favor of the states, two
presidential vetoes against the states, and a major issue in a
presidential campaign, before the states finally won the victory. It was
the most serious conflict of the century between the states and the
federal government. The federal claims were branded as an attempted
"expropriation" and "steal" by outraged officials of Texas and many of
the other states. In 1949 a statewide public opinion poll reported that
the people of Texas considered it to be the most important public issue
facing the state. Public indignation ran higher in Texas than elsewhere
because this land had been dedicated to and was a source of revenue for
the public school fund (see AVAILABLE SCHOOL FUND; PERMANENT
SCHOOL FUND). Furthermore, Texas held title not only under the general
rule of law theretofore applicable to all states, but under the specific
provisions of the Annexation Agreement between the Republic of Texas
and the United States. State officials, the Texas legislature, the
Democratic and Republican state conventions, the Texas congressional
delegation, and many citizens groups resolved to resist the federal
claims and seek congressional action recognizing continued state
ownership.
The Nixon administration promoted greater dialogue with the Soviet government, including regular summit meetings and negotiations over arms control and other bilateral agreements.Détente ended after the Soviet intervention in Afghanistan, which led to the United States boycott of the 1980 Olympics in Moscow.
Merchants played a very important role in the mulsamic culture, especially in the trade-market. People viewed them as people with high status when it came to business with other countries.
