According to the biological species concept, organisms belong to the same species if they can interbreed to produce viable, fertile offspring. Species are separated from one another by prezygotic and postzygotic barriers, which prevent mating or the production of viable, fertile offspring.
<span>Classification systems change over time for a variety of reasons, but the basic gist of the matter is that as we learn more about the natural world around us, these systems change to fit in with and around the new information. Whilst it is worth learning the current system of classification, it is also important to remember that this could always change at any time.</span>
The amount of OXYGEN dissolved in ocean waters quickly decreases with depth
to reach a minimum at around 1000 m of depth.
phytoplanktonic organisms produce enormpus amounts of oxygen through photosynthesis.
But oxygen is also used up very quickly by animals that live in the water:
at depth (beyond the photic zone, around 100 m)
oxygen can not be produced (lack of sunlight) and whatever amount is present is rapidly consumed:
as a consequence, oxygen is quickly depleted below 100 m
in the Bathypelagic and the Abyssopelagic zones there are less and less consumers, so oxygen is not used up at the same rate it is in surface waters.
In shallow waters there is plenty of sunlight, and as a consequence
nutrients are depleted pretty quickly by the abundance of marine life.
As soon as we move below the photic zone, where animal life decreases significantly,
nutrients start to increase again, reaching a maximum by the base of the Mesopelagic zone,
essentially in coincidence with the oxygen minimum.
Past that point, nutrients decrease very slowly because only few organisms live there.
At these depths, organisms are not very abundant because of the harsh conditions for life we encounter here:
they can survive, with no light at all and under enormous hydrostatic pressure,
only because of the presence of oxygen brought at depth by deep currents (which are, again, density-driven)
and of the slightly increased amounts of nutrients.
This diagram shows the variations of oxygen and nutrients (here represented by the phosphate ion) with depth in ocean waters.
surface-water circulation
Surface-water circulation is wind-driven: the wind drags the surface waters of Earth's oceans in gigantic gyres
centered in the northern and southern Atlantic and Pacific Oceans and in the southern Indian Ocean.
These gyres rotate clockwise in the northern hemisphere and counter-clockwise in the southern hemisphere (Coriolis effect).
We have already seen that surface-water circulation is wind-driven.
Deep-water circulation instead is density-driven
This means that differences in water density cause motion of water masses at depth.
Density (mass over volume) changes with changing salinity and temperature of the ocean:
higher salinity implies higher density (and viceversa)
while higher temperatures imply lower density.
Tropical waters are warmer than polar waters because of more intense solar radiation around the equator:
as long as surface waters are warm, they can never sink to the bottom of the ocean.
Surface waters can only sink to the bottom when their density is the same or higher than that of deep waters.
This happens for instance in the North Atlantic ocean, where the formation of ice pack
causes a very cold water mass to slightly increase its salinity (and hence its density);
and all around Antarctica, where the extremely cold temperatures create similar conditions.
In the figure, pink indicates warm waters, while blue indicates cold waters.
while darker pink indicates waters that are always warm (tropical waters, between about 30°N and 30°S).
Light blue indicates the North Atlantic Deep Water, a very dense body of water that sinks to the bottom
but is still less dense then the Antarctic Bottom Water (in darker blue)
a higher amount of solar radiation reaches Earth around the equator,
where temperatures are on average higher than at higher latitudes.
We would expect that higher temperatures in ocean waters would cause
a greater amount of water evaporation, and therefore an increase in ocean salinity.
But when we observe salinity variations, we notice that the higher values
are found around 23° of latitude instead.
This occurs because of the high level of precipitation in equatorial areas, where rain water dilutes the salinity of the ocean.
Areas around the tropics, up to 30° N and S, are extremely dry (that is where most of Earth desert are found).
While the heat is still enough to cause substantial evaporation,
precipitation is extremely scarce or absent.
The consequence is an increase in salinity at these latitudes (known as the tropics).
The density of the ocean water is affected mainly by its temperature and its salinity.Temperature and salinity vary consistently with latitude only at the surface.At depth they remain essentially constant, and as a consequence the density too does not change much.In this graph we can see how density of the ocean waters,when measured at low latitudes (solid red line) increases quickly between ca. 100 m and 1000.This vertical interval of rapid density increase is defined as the pycnocline.where mixing with the atmosphere occurs.Below the mixed layer we distinguish between upper and deep waters: the Upper water coincides with the pycnoclineand is found above what is called the Deep water, where conditions are more stable
Answer:
A
Ametrine containing amethyst and citrine, from Bolivia
Abelsonite
Abenakiite-(Ce)
Abernathyite
Abhurite
Abramovite
Althausite
Althupite
Altisite
Alum-(K)
Aluminite
Aluminium
Alunite
Alunogen
Amakinite
Amarantite
Amblygonite
Ameghinite
Amesite
Amicite
Amphibole (mineral group)
Analcime (analcite)
Anandite
Anapaite
Anatase
Ancylite (mineral group)
Andalusite
Andersonite
Andesine
Andorite (IV/VI)
Andradite
Andyrobertsite
Anglesite
Anhydrite
Ankerite
Annabergite
Annite
Anorthite
Anorthoclase
Antarcticite
Anthonyite
Anthophyllite
Antigorite
Antimony
Antitaenite
Antlerite
Apachite
Apatite (mineral group)
Aphthitalite
Apophyllite
Aragonite
Arcanite
Archerite
Arctite
Arcubisite
Ardaite
Arfvedsonite
Argentite
Argutite
Argyrodite
Armalcolite
Arsenic
Arseniosiderite
Arsenoclasite
Arsenolite
Arsenopyrite
Arthurite
Artinite
Artroeite
Ashburtonite
Ashoverite
Asisite
Astrophyllite
Atacamite
Athabascaite
Atheneite
Aubertite
Augelite
Augite
Aurichalcite
Auricupride
Aurostibite
Austinite
Autunite
Avicennite
Avogadrite
Awaruite
Axinite (mineral group)
Azurite
Varieties that are not valid species:
Adamantine spar (variety of corundum)
Agate (variety of chalcedony and quartz)
Alabaster (variety of gypsum)
Alexandrite (variety of chrysoberyl)
Allingite (synonym of amber)
Alum
Amazonite (variety of microcline)
Amethyst (purple variety of quartz)
Ametrine (variety of quartz)
Ammolite (organic; also a gemstone)
Amosite (asbestiform grunerite)
Antozonite (variety of fluorite)
Anyolite (metamorphic rock - zoisite, ruby, and hornblende)
Aquamarine (light blue variety of beryl)
Argentite (high temperature form of acanthite)
Asbestos (fibrous serpentine- or amphibole minerals)
Auerlite (variety of thorite)
Avalite (chromian variety of illite)
Aventurine (variety of quartz)
