The Chinese civilization has been an ethnocentric one. It always saw itself as the center of civilization, culture and enlightenment, and all others outside its borders were seen as barbarians. Imperial China did not see or feel a need to engage in large-scale trade or significant exchanges with outside powers, with neighbors or distant countries. No country was seen as equal, all were treated as vassals or bearers of tributes for the Son of Heaven, the Emperor. We see the historical example of the first British diplomatic mission of McCartney, which had to return with empty hands; his new mechanic marvels and gifts did not impress the Qianlong emperor. Besides, like all the previous dynasties in the long history of China, the Qing empire faced a security threat from the north, where northern nomadic peoples kept pressing on the borders of civilization, that is, on China´s borders. Chinese rulers alway feared being overrun by those foreign forces - the Mongols who conquered and ruled China for a century came from the north. So, resources and efforts focused on internal issues. And finally , Qing China spent much resources to expand its borders to present-day Tibet and Xinjiang.
