Evidence suggests that the Minoans disappeared so suddenly because of the massive volcanic eruption in the Santorini Islands. Excavations there have uncovered Akrotiri, a Minoan town which was buried in this eruption, one of the largest in recorded history. The eruption was only 70 miles from Crete, the center of the Minoan civilization. Recent evidence suggests that the Santorini eruption was up to 10 times more powerful than the eruption of Krakatoa in 1883. It caused massive climatic disruption and the blast was heard over 3000 miles away.
We know now that the Santorini eruption and the collapse of the volcanic cone into the sea caused tsunamis which devastated the coasts of Crete and other Minoan coastal towns. Radiocarbon dating shows that a large tsunamis Crete at the same time as the Santorini eruption.
There is a number of ways that Portugal and other European nations tried to challenge Spanish power:
1. illegal trade with Spanish colonies - given that Spain forbade any nation to trade with their colonies in the Americas, they had to do it illegally, without Spanish knowledge. Smugglers had a special role in this given that they did most of the work
2. pirates - these nations tried to do everything in their power to diminish the authority Spain had in the Americas. This is why they resorted to privateers - that is just a fancy name for pirates who preyed on Spanish ships in order to steal their treasure
Cultural and charitable causes.
I can't answer because it doesn't show what the author said or anything. These are only the questions.
