In 1879, psychology began as a science of its own in Germany with the formation of Wundt’s psychology laboratory. He industrialized the technique of objective introspection. Titchener, a pupil of Wundt, brought psychology in the form of structuralism to America. Structuralism died out in the early twentieth century. William James suggested a countering point of view called functionalism, which stressed the way the mind permits us to familiarize. While, functionalism influenced the contemporary fields of educational psychology, evolutionary psychology, and industrial/organizational psychology.
-The firs way is by giving advice to the Congress.
Federal agency consist of several departments that possess various expertise that hold the country together. So listening their advice would give the congress different perspectives on what best for the country.
- Since every complain from the citizens are directed to the federal bureaucracy, they possess the data that represent the interest of the majority citizens.
According to Baumrind (1971), the parent who uses punitive disciplinary measures is authoritarian. Baumrind’s (1971) introduced authoritative, authoritarian, and permissive typologies of parenting styles. The punitive disciplinary measures are considered to be behaviours like punishing children by taking privileges away from a child with little if any explanations or making threats with little or no justification as a way to punish a child. The authoritarian parenting style is characterized by the regular usage of punishment, a very low level of parental warmth and nurturing paired with unresponsiveness and lack of trust. Also, parents have high expectations when it comes to a child's behavior.
Whenever a research is done, you must reject or accept a null hypothesis (the one you consider is not correct) or your work hypothesis (the theory you think is must probably accurate or close to the truth) usually, when performing a research, you will not always obtain positive or statistically significant results, that validate your hypothesis. Is actually, not unusual that extremes (or extraordinary results) come out (unexpected for several reasons: incorrect size of the sample, improper selection of the subjects- a bias- lack of correct determination of the variable measured or failure to determine the type of the variable-numerical, categorical, ratio,etc-)
Positive or negative results are yet, results whether they prove or reject your hypothesis. Failing to establish a scientific hypothesis does not necessarily mean that they did something wrong, it just says that the hypothesis tested does not approach correctly to the epistemological truth (ultimately, any research is only a mere approximation to reality). Therefore, when two scientists deny sharing<em> unusual results</em>, they are acting unethically, hiding results that can mean something from a different point of view.
reference
Nicholson, R. S. (1989). On being a scientist. Science, 246(4928), 305-306.
