Shaping is the method of successively reinforcing closer and closer approximations to a target ultimate behavior. Shaping includes reinforcing responses which are approximating to the one needed. The shaping method is important because an individual is not always able to naturally exhibit the exact target behavior but by reinforcing the behavior closer to the target behavior, the terminal behavior can be learnt and taught. Shaping is carried out by successive approximation. This is done when the the target response is so rare that it will take a lot of time waiting for the response to take place so that it can be reinforced. In the given question Andy is rewarded every time his current grade C closely approximated to the desired goal that is A grade. So through these subtle reinforcements Andy's behavior is shaped.
The steps in shaping are:
Reinforce any response which is close to the target terminal behavior in some way.
Reinforce the response more closely associated and resembled with desired behavior. The previous behavior should no longer be reinforced.
Continue reinforcing the responses that more closely approximates target behavior.
Continue to reinforce the subsequent approximations until the desired behavior is met.
Reinforce only the ultimate desired behavior once the desired behavior is reached.
Example:
Suppose a teacher wants her student give presentation in front of the whole class but the student is shy so he would not be capable of giving a presentation at once. So the student should be given rewards for his behaviors/responses that approximates closely to the desired goal. Such as giving him reward when he stands in front of class. Next, giving him reward when he introduces himself to the class at the start of presentation. Rewarding him when he tells the topic of the presentation. Ultimately he can give a presentation. Shaping can be achieved this way.
-22/9 is a fraction with integer numerator and denominator. That is the definition of a rational number. When written in decimal form, it is an infinitely repeating decimal with a single repeating digit: 4. Any repeating decimal is a rational number. It is only irrational if it doesn't repeat.
