From the eleventh century, medicine became synonymous with physica (in Latin it means study of nature). This period was marked by the expansion of the Arab-Islamic Empire to Europe, which brought some medical and philosophical treatises from the Greeks, Byzantines and Indians, as well as their own treatises and comments on the Greek treaties. The pioneer who introduced Arabic medical writings and translations into Europe was Constantine the African (1020-1087), according to Lidiane Alves de Souza. The Arab presence influenced the resumption of the study of anatomy, and connect knowledge about humoral theory, astronomy and physiology. Ali Ibn Abbas's Pantegni (982-994), translated by Constantine from Arabic to Latin, was the first part of the Complete Book of Medical Art (originally Kitab al-Maliki), written in the tenth century, and already featured studies of the genital anatomy and reproduction.
The Battles of Lexington and Concord on 19 April 1775, the famous 'shot heard 'round the world', marked the start of the American War of Independence (1775-83). Politically disastrous for the British, it persuaded many Americans to take up arms and support the cause of independence.
