Both Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro were busy cities. They had citadels, for protection from both enemy invasions and floods. The bric
ks used to build these structures were fired in a kiln, not sun-dried as in Mesopotamia. Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro also had large community granaries. This means that many people in the civilizations were farmers. They grew crops such as wheat, barley, melons, and dates. Some people, however, were artisans. They worked in copper, bronze, ivory, and wood. The residents of the ancient Indus River valley were the first people known to make cotton cloth. Still other people were traders. They traded with people as far away as Mesopotamia and Egypt.
Archaeologists believe the governments of Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro were strong and well-organized. Why do they think this? Because the civilizations’ ruins reveal that the cities were carefully constructed. Buildings were spaced evenly and made of uniform bricks. Everything was measured precisely. There was even a sewer system. Strong governments had to have planned and carried out these projects.
The early residents of the Indus Valley were educated and religious people. They developed their own system of writing. The writing was done on small clay seals. However, the writing shows no similarity to the cuneiform used by the Mesopotamians. Writing and images on these clay seals, as well as statues and other remains, have provided clues to the religious ideas of these ancient peoples. Indus Valley residents were polytheists, like the people of Mesopotamia and Egypt. They worshipped a mother goddess. She represented creation. The buffalo and bull were sacred, too. These early beliefs may have caused later people to treat animals such as cattle as special. Graves of ancient Indus Valley people were filled with offerings like food and weapons. This suggests that the people believed in an afterlife where the dead person might need these objects.
The Vedas describe the Aryans as warriors who used chariots and iron weapons. They considered cows sacred. Over time, they gave up life as nomads and became farmers instead, like the people of Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro. They also bred cattle. The Aryans were led by chiefs called rajahs. Rajahs were elected by a group of warriors. They got advice from a council of elders made from the heads of families. The Aryans were religious and, like other Indus River valley people, polytheists. The Aryans had new, different ideas about which gods to worship and how people should live, however. The religion of Hinduism began with the Aryans. The caste system, which is related to Hindu beliefs, also began with the Aryans. In the caste system, the Aryans divided their society into four groups based on jobs. Everyone had to stay in the group into which they were born. This was different from the Harappan and Mohenjo-Daro cultures. In those cultures, social standing was not solely based on a job, and people were freer to switch their jobs.
What Other Groups Existed in Ancient India, and How Did Early Civilizations Influence the Development of India?
The people of Harappa, Mohenjo-Daro, and the Aryans are not the only known people of ancient India. A group called the Dravidians also lived in southern India. The Dravidians lived in an area known as the Deccan. The Deccan is a plateau in the south. Around it are low-lying mountains. These mountains are called the Eastern and Western Ghats. Few people live in certain parts of the
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