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Francisco Ignacio Madero González ( 30 October 1873 – 22 February 1913) was a Mexican revolutionary, writer and statesman who served as the 33rd president of Mexico from 1911 until shortly before his assassination in 1913. He was an advocate for social justice and democracy. Madero was notable for challenging Mexican President Porfirio Díaz for the presidency in 1910 and being instrumental in sparking the Mexican Revolution.
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The Roman Republic became the Roman Empire in 27 BCE when Julius Caesar’s adopted son, best known as Augustus, became the ruler of Rome. Augustus established an autocratic form of government, where he was the sole ruler and made all important decisions. Although we refer to him as Rome’s first emperor, Augustus never took the title of king or emperor, nor did his successors; they preferred to call themselves princeps, first citizen, or primus inter pares, first among peers. This choice of title maintained the appearance of limited power that had been so important under the Republic.
Many of the reforms enacted by Augustus and his successors had a deep and lasting impact on the internal political and economic structures of Rome.
Pax Romana—literally “Roman peace”—is a term often given to the period between 27 BCE and 180 CE during which Roman rule was relatively stable and war less frequent. There were conflicts, such as provincial revolts and wars along the frontier—see the map below showing the extent of Roman control—but Rome experienced nothing like the civil wars that dominated much of the first century BCE. The emperors and the Senate took over most elections and simply chose who they wanted for office, so there were fewer elected political offices to fight over.
Augustus—who, it should be pointed out, came to power through victory in a civil war—ended a string of damaging internal conflicts. Internal stability had positive effects on foreign relations. Because the political and social structures of the empire that Augustus established remained largely unchanged for several centuries, Rome was able to establish regular trade with India and China, further increasing its material wealth through more peaceful means.
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Its area covers what are now southern Iraq, Syria, Lebanon, Jordan, Palestine, Israel, Egypt, and parts of Turkey and Iran. Two rivers, the Tigris and the Euphrates, regularly flooded the region, and the Nile River also runs through part of it.
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