What exactly is your question?
Answer:
Energy does not cycle the way nutrients and atoms do. Energy enters the ecosystem from the Sun and exits after the organisms have taken as much as they need. Organisms release energy back into the biosphere as heat.
Answer:
beneficial mutation
Explanation:
A mutation is any alteration in the genetic material of an organism. In general, mutations have a negative impact on the fitness (or reproductive success) of the individual that carries this mutation; however, there are situations where a mutation may be beneficial for the individual in a given environment. When a beneficial mutation occurs in the germline, it potentially can be passed to the next generation and progressively increases its frequency in the population.
Answer:
Sperm undergo more mitotic cellular divisions than egg and therefore have a higher risk of developing a spontaneous mutation.
Explanation:
As you have seen in the question above, lycanthropy is a mutation that is more likely to be established as the supply of male gametes comes from older men. This is because sperm undergo more mitotic cell divisions than eggs, and therefore are at greater risk of developing a spontaneous mutation.
In order for you to understand this, you need to know that eggs (which are female gametes) are produced at once in a woman's body. Thus, cell division is limited and therefore the opportunity for spontaneous mutations to occur is also limited. However, men produce sperm from adolescence to death, creating the need for countless cell divisions, which can develop genetic errors that create spontaneous mutations in gametes.
