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The year 622 brought a new challenge to Christianity. Near Mecca, Saudi Arabia, a prophet named Muhammad claimed he received a revelation that became a cornerstone of the Islamic faith. The Koran, which Muhammad wrote in Arabic, identified Jesus Christ not as God but as a prophet. <em><u>Islam</u></em> spread throughout the Middle East and into Europe until 732.Soon thereafter, European Christians began the <em><u>Crusades</u></em>, a campaign of violence against Muslims to dominate the <em><u>Holy Lands</u></em>—an area that extended from modern-day Turkey in the north along the Mediterranean coast to the Sinai Peninsula—under Islamic control, partially in response to sustained Muslim control in Europe. The city of Jerusalem is a holy site for Jews, Christians, and Muslims; evidence exists that the three religions lived there in harmony for centuries. But in 1095, European Christians decided not only to reclaim the holy city from Muslim rulers but also to conquer the entire surrounding area.
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Born from the wartime hysteria of World War II, the internment of Japanese Americans is considered by many to be one of the biggest civil rights violations in American history. Americans of Japanese ancestry, regardless of citizenship, were forced from their homes and into relocation centers known as internment camps. The fear that arose after Japan's attack on Pearl Harbor created severe anti-Japanese prejudice, which evolved into the widespread belief that Japanese people in America were a threat to national security. On February 19, 1942, President Franklin D. Roosevelt signed Executive Order 9066, giving the government the power to begin relocation.
Executive Order 9066 placed power in the hands of a newly formed War Relocation Authority, the WRA. This government agency was tasked with moving all Japanese Americans into internment camps all across the United States. The War Relocation Authority Collection(link is external) is filled with private reports explaining the importance of relocation and documenting the populations of different camps. WRA Report No. 5 on Community Analysis prepares the reader for the different ways and reasons for which the "evacuees" might try to resist, and how to handle these situations.
This order of internment was met with resistance. There were Japanese Americans who refused to move, allowing themselves to be tried and imprisoned with the goal of overturning Executive Order 9066 in court. The Japanese American Internment Camp Materials Collection(link is external) showcases the trials of Gordon Hirabayashi and Minoru Yasui, two men who had violated the relocation order. In the case of Japanese-American Gordon Hirabayashi, an entire defense committee was created to garner funding and defend him in court. The case made it all the way to the Supreme Court, where the President's orders were declared constitutional and Hirabayashi was pronounced guilty. Minoru Yasui v. The United States met the same fate, with the justification that Yasui had renounced his rights as a citizen when he disobeyed the orders of the state.
While many fought this Order in the court system, non-Japanese Americans found other ways to voice their dissent. Church Groups provided boxed lunches for Japanese people as they left for internment camps, but even this simple act of charity was met with contempt. Letters and postcards from the Reverend Wendell L. Miller Collection(link is external) admonished one group of churchwomen, exclaiming that they were traitors for helping "the heathen" rather than the American soldiers fighting for their country. >
The importance is that for the first time in history, a national constitution explicitly stated that it had been drafted not by a monarch or a group of barons but by representatives of ordinary citizens. It expressed the fact that such government had been instituted by the democratic will of the people and not by the “divine right” of a monarch or ruler.
It is definitely a collective term; it puts forward the right of self-government of the national community. It does not express the ruling will of an individual person but the collective will of an entire nation.
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There is little doubt that the widespread use of the automobile, especially after 1920, changed the rural and urban landscapes in America. It is overly simplistic to assume, however, that the automobile was the single driving force in the transformation of the countryside or the modernization of cities. In some ways automobile transport was a crucial agent for change, but in other cases it merely accelerated ongoing changes.
In several respects, the automobile made its impact felt first in rural areas where cars were used for touring and recreation on the weekends as opposed to replacing existing transit that brought people to and from work in urban areas. Some of the earliest paved roads were landscaped parkways along scenic routes. Of course, rural people were not always very pleased when urban drivers rutted unpaved roads, kicked up dust, and generally frightened or even injured livestock. Yet, cars potentially could help confront rural problems—isolation, the high cost of transporting farm products, and the labor of farm work. Although farmers may have resisted the automobile at first, by the 1920s per capita automobile ownership favored the rural family. Adoption was uneven in rural areas, however, depending on income, availability of cars, the continuing reliance on horses, and other factors. Automobile manufacturers did not lose sight of this market and courted potential customers with advertisements touting that cars were “Built for Country Roads” or promoting vehicles that would lead to “The Passing of the Horse.”
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Answer: they all wanted to avoid problems between English and Indians
