17th Amendment to the U.S. Constitution: Direct Election of U.S. Senators (1913)
The Constitution, as it was adopted in 1788, made the Senate an assembly where the states would have equal representation. Each state legislature would elect two senators to 6-year terms. Late in the 19th century, some state legislatures deadlocked over the election of a senator when different parties controlled different houses, and Senate vacancies could last months or years. In other cases, special interests or political machines gained control over the state legislature. Progressive reformers dismissed individuals elected by such legislatures as puppets and the Senate as a "millionaire’s club" serving powerful private interests.
One Progressive response to these concerns was the "Oregon system," which utilized a state primary election to identify the voters’ choice for Senator while pledging all candidates for the state legislature to honor the primary’s result. Over half of the states adopted the "Oregon system," but the 1912 Senate investigation of bribery and corruption in the election of Illinois Senator William Lorimer indicated that only a constitutional amendment mandating the direct election of Senators by a state’s citizenry would allay public demands for reform.
When the House passed proposed amendments for the direct election of Senators in 1910 and 1911, they included a "race rider" meant to bar Federal intervention in cases of racial discrimination among voters. This would be done by vesting complete control of Senate elections in state governments. A substitute amendment by Senator Joseph L. Bristow of Kansas provided for the direct election of Senators without the "race rider." It was adopted by the Senate on a close vote before the proposed constitutional amendment itself passed the Senate. Over a year later, the House accepted the change, and on April 8, 1913, the resolution became the 17th amendment.
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The uninterrupted history of blacks in the United States began in 1619, when 20 Africans were landed in the English colony of Virginia. These individuals were not slaves but indentured servants—persons bound to an employer for a limited number of years—as were many of the settlers of European descent (whites). By the 1660s large numbers of Africans were being brought to the English colonies. In 1790 blacks numbered almost 760,000 and made up nearly one-fifth of the population of the United States.
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If this is the cold war, then these people were of some influence. Children were influenced by teachers. Labor leaders could lead strikes that would cripple parts of America that were dependent on labor. Government workers could do two things:
1) They could pass on information that the Government of America would not really like passed on.
2) They could influence other Government workers to see the world that they (the instigators) did.
That was the second time in the 20th century that people in certain professions were targeted and made to answer for their political beliefs. The other instance was during the McCarthy era where Joseph McCarthy went after people in high positions. Movie stars, movie directors, and movie writers were all fingered. Their courage was tested: all they had to do was name someone who was also a member of the Communist Party. McCarthy was brought down, but the hatred he generated lingered on.
Was all this right? The most sacred part of the Constitution of the United States is the First Amendment. Many have died for it, believing strongly in its sanctity. Many of those accused of being communists were ordinary citizens exercising their right to speak. The did not threaten to overthrow the government. They only wanted everyone to be treated fairly and not be subjected to the brutality of those in power.
It is never right to loose your livelihood for peacefully expressing your opinion.
There is some connection between the work of Martin Luther King Jr. and the McCarthy hate movement. J. Edger Hoover always had it in for King and tried very hard to make the connection between King and the Communist party stick. Fortunately he couldn't
The first time was after the first world war. I don't know much about this, but I do know that it was a brutal time and the confrontation between labor and the government officials was oppressive and many lost freedoms, family and jobs over the conflict. Try to find Attorney General Palmer to learn more.
Santa rosa; falfurrias; olivarez; South Alamo; citrus city
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In the establishment of the African diaspora, the transatlantic slave trade is often considered the defining element, but people of African descent have engaged in eleven other migration movements involving North America since the 16th century, many being voluntary migrations, although undertaken in exploitative and hostile environments.
