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Some states with existing colonies strengthened their control over those colonies and in some cases assumed direct control over colonies previously held by non-state entities. European states as well as the United States and Japan acquired territories throughout Asia and the Pacific, while Spanish and Portuguese influence declined. Many European states used both warfare and diplomacy to expand their empires in Africa. Trade in some commodities was organized in a way that gave merchants and companies based in Europe and the U.S. a distinct economic advantage. The need for raw materials for factories and increased food supplies for the growing population in urban centers led to the growth of export economies around the world that specialized in commercial extraction of natural resources and the production of food and industrial crops. The profits from these raw materials were used to purchase finished goods. Increasing questions about political authority and growing nationalism contributed to anti-colonial movements. Anti-imperial resistance took various forms, including direct resistance within empires and the creation of new states on the peripheries. Increasing discontent with imperial rule led to rebellions, some of which were influenced by religious ideas.
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The war resulted in the Treaty of Tientsin (26 June 1858), which forced the Chinese to pay reparations for the expenses of the recent war, open a second group of ten ports to European commerce, legalize the opium trade, and grant foreign traders and missionaries rights to travel within China.
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Epic of Gilgamesh is an epic poem from ancient Mesopotamia, regarded as the earliest surviving notable literature and the second oldest religious text, after the Pyramid Texts. The literary history of Gilgamesh begins with five Sumerian poems about Bilgamesh, king of Uruk, dating from the Third Dynasty of Ur.
