E) clarifies the reasons astronomy meets the standards for scientific rigor
Explanation:
According to the passage, for a subject matter to be defined as a science, it must be empirical, rational, general, and cumulative. Empirical entails being subject to test by observation.
That sentence, “although we do control the conditions of observation” functions as a transitional element in that it shows that even though the subject matter in astronomy cannot be fully controlled, the conditions of observation can be controlled. This way, astronomy meets the condition of being called a science albeit an experimental science.
E) clarifies the reasons astronomy meets the standards for scientific rigor
Explanation:
Answer E
Correct. The clause “although we do control the conditions of observation” is a transitional element that establishes a connection between “some sciences, like astronomy” and the authors’ prior definition of scientific observation as, in part, “observation made by qualified observers under controlled conditions” (paragraph 2, sentence 4). This definition emphasizes that scientific observation is more rigorous and intentional than ordinary forms of observation (“more than keeping one’s eyes open”). Therefore, by noting that disciplines like astronomy “control the conditions of observation,” the authors show that these disciplines meet the standards for scientific rigor even though they do not involve experiments.
