observing sunspots on the Sun and mountains on the Moon
Explanation:
Galileo was an Italian Physicist and Astronomer and is regarded as the father of modern Physics.
It was previously believed that the objects in the heavens such as the sun, moon and stars were perfect and rough till he observed sunspots on the sun and mountains on the moon which indicates the surface of the moon is rough with mountains and craters.
From the exhaustive list of choices, I think the best answer is effrontery which has a definition of insolent or impertinent behavior. Among all of the choices, the definition of this word is what completes the thought of the sentence.
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