Fat is converted to carbon dioxide and water. You exhale the carbon dioxide and the water mixes into your circulation until it's lost as urine or sweat
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How do proteins adopt and maintain a stable folded structure? What features of the protein amino acid sequence determine the stability of the folded structure?
Proteins are formed by three-dimensional structures (twisted, folded or rolled over themselves) determined by the sequence of amino acids which are linked by peptide bonds. Among these bonds, what determines the most stable conformation of proteins is their tendency to maintain a native conformation, which are stabilized by chemical interactions such as: disulfide bonds, H bonds, ionic bonds and hydrophobic interactions.
How does disruption of that structure lead to protein deposition diseases such as amyloidosis, Alzheimer's disease, and Parkinson's disease?
The accumulation of poorly folded proteins can cause amyloid diseases, a group of several common diseases, including Alzheimer's disease and Parkinson's disease. As the human being ages, the balance of protein synthesis, folding and degradation is disturbed, which causes the accumulation of poorly folded proteins in aggregates, which can manifest itself in the nervous system and in peripheral tissues. The genes and protein products involved in these diseases are called amyloidogenic and all of these diseases have in common the expression of a protein outside its normal context. In all these diseases, protein aggregation can be caused by mere chance, by protein hyperphosphorylation, by mutations that make the protein unstable, or by an unregulated or pathological increase in the concentration of some of these proteins between cells. These imbalances in concentration can be caused by mutations of the amyloidogenic genes, changes in the amino acid sequence of the protein or by deficiencies in the proteasome.
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From low concentration to high concentration
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Muscles are involved in the digestive system, immune system, and excretory system.
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The equation that shows the equilibrium reaction of carbon dioxide in the blood is the following one:
<h3>
CO₂ + H₂O ↔ H₂CO₃ ↔ H⁺ + HCO₃⁻</h3><h3 />
This equation describes the bicarbonate buffer system which regulates the pH of the blood.
- During hypoventilation, the CO₂ produced by the cells through metabolism is not released fast enough, so CO₂ levels in the blood increase. In this situation, the equation shifts towards the right, and an excess of protons is produced, therefore decreasing the pH and causing acidosis.
- During hyperventilation the breathing is very rapid and CO₂ is exhaled from the body at a very fast rate. In this situation, the CO₂ levels in the blood decrease, the equation shifts towads the left and the concentration of H+ thus decreases, causing alkalosis.
