The ability to generalize a study's results to different circumstances is known as external validity that suffers from 7 types of threats.
<h3>What are the threats to External Validity?</h3>
There are 7 major threats to external validity.
- The first threat is sampling bias, in which a sample is not representative of the population.
- The second threat is history, where an unrelated incident can affect the results.
- The third threat is observer bias, in which the traits or actions of the experimenter unintentionally affect the results, resulting in bias and other demand features.
- The fourth threat is the Hawthorne effect, which describes the propensity for individuals to alter their behaviour merely because they are aware that they are being observed.
- The fifth threat is the Testing Effect, in which the results are impacted by whether a test is administered before or after another.
- The sixth threat is the aptitude-treatment, which involves the interaction of individual and group factors to affect the dependent variable.
- The environment, time of day, location, researcher traits, and other variables that restrict the generalizability of the results are included in the seventh threat.
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There are 75 questions + 1 essay on the English ACT
The code chunk that lets the analyst create the phone_number column is: unite(customers, "phone_number", area_code, phone_num, sep="-"
<h3>What is a data frame?</h3>
A data frame refers to a two-dimensional array-like structure or table that is made up of rows and columns, which is typically used for storing data in R Studio using the R programming language.
In Computer programming, a data frame is a list of vectors that are all equal in length, and each column consist of values of one variable while each row consist of a set of values from each column.
<h3>The executable code in R Studio.</h3>
In this scenario, the code chunk that would be used to create a data frame that combines the two columns into a single column (phone_number) is:
- unite(customers, "phone_number", area_code, phone_num, sep="-"
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