1. theory = hypothesis
Both theory and hypothesis represent an idea that hasn't been proven yet. People can have certain theories or hypotheses about particular things, but until they do experiments or research to try and prove them, they cannot become laws or postulates. In order for a theory to become accepted and valid, it needs evidence.
2. type of proposal or petition = resolution
In legal terms, when a person submits a proposal, and it is accepted, it is referred to as a resolution. It represents a legal and official acceptance of somebody's petition, especially after a meeting where the officials have agreed on a mutual decision. Some synonyms would be proposal, petition, proposition, plan, motion, etc.
3. conversational speech pattern = colloquialism
There are two general types of speech: formal and informal, which depends on the situation you have found yourself in. When you are talking to teachers, for example, you are obviously going to use formal language. However, when you are talking to your family and friends, you can be informal and use colloquial, or everyday words.
4. characteristic way of writing = style
Everyone has their own characteristic way of writing - this depends on your choice of words for the most part. Some writers like using a simple style of writing - with few words and restricted descriptions. On the other hand, some writers love using a lot of figures of speech and embellished language to make their style look prettier.
5. atmosphere = mood
The atmosphere in a particular text is referred to as mood. There are various types of moods in literary works - it can be humorous, or scary, or mysterious, or serious, or tragic, etc. The mood usually depends on the topic of that particular text and the author's choice of words.
6. expressions unique to a language = idiom
Although all languages have idioms, they are still unique to them. Usually, idioms cannot be translated properly into foreign languages because they are so inherently woven into that particular language. In English, here is an example of a popular idiom: <em>beat around the bush, </em>which means to hesitate.
7. literature arranged in sentences = prose
Prose refers to texts such as novels, novellas, short stories, manuals, etc, all of which are written using sentences as opposed to stanzas. While there exist prosaic works written in stanzas (and poetry written using sentences), the general differentiation between the two media is based on how they are arranged.
8. literature arranged in stanzas = poetry
As opposed to prose, poetry refers to texts such as poems, which are written using stanzas as opposed to sentences. A stanza is a paragraph in a poem which consists of several lines of text. Poems can consist of many stanzas, or in some cases, they may not even have stanzas - rather, they might be written in one long stanza only.
9. stressed or unstressed syllables = rhythm
Rhythm in poetry is achieved through the meter, the sequence of stressed and unstressed syllables. There are various types of meter, such as iamb, trochee, anapest, and dactyl, all of which contribute to the rhythm of the poem they are written in their own ways. Some start with stressed syllables, some with unstressed ones, some are shorter, some are longer, etc.
10. association of a word = connotation
All words have their denotation and their connotation. Denotation is the actual definition of that word - what you would find in a dictionary if you looked that word up. On the other hand, connotation has to do with emotions - what you feel like when you think of a particular word. For example, the denotation of <em>home </em>is the place where you live, but the connotation is positive, because it associates it with warmth and love.