by comparing the gravitational mass of galaxies to the luminous mass of galaxies
Answer:
a.)
Operant conditioning -
It is a type of learning in which a person learns from consequences ( which may be positive or negative ) that follows person's behavior.
The procedures which encourage the person to do the things the same way he/ she used to do are called reinforcement,
The procedures which discourage the person to do the things the same way he/ she used to do are called punishment.
b.)
Strategies Jim and Kelly could use to encourage or discourage Ryan's behaviors :
Positive Reinforcement -
If Ryan eats without dropping off his food from the plate , it will be encouraging for him if Jim and Kelly appreciate him or buy gifts for him.
Negative Reinforcement -
If Ryan eats without dropping off his food from the plate , it will be encouraging for him if Jim and Kelly should avoid that behavior due to which Ryan is not learning the table manners.
For example - The scolding of Jim or Kelly when Ryan's is dropping off the food on the floor.
Positive Punishments -
If Ryan eats with dropping off his food from the plate , it will be encouraging for him if Jim and Kelly will add some consequences which Ryan will hate.
For example - If Ryan is eating with dropping off the food and Jim or Kelly yells at Ryan for his bad behavior.
Negative Punishments -
If Ryan eats with dropping off his food from the plate , it will be discouraging for him if Jim and Kelly removing any good thing in which Ryan is comfortable.
For example - Ryan's watching TV time reduced or taken away his toys.
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