Answer:
The Constitution enumerates a great many powers of Congress, ranging from seemingly major powers, such as the powers to regulate interstate and foreign commerce, to seemingly more minor powers, such as the power to establish post offices and post roads. But there are many powers that most people, today or in 1788 (when the Constitution was ratified), would expect Congress to exercise that are not part of those enumerations. The Constitution assumes that there will be federal departments, offices, and officers, but no clause expressly gives Congress power to create them. Congress is given specific power to punish counterfeiting and piracy, but there is no explicit general authorization to provide criminal—or civil – penalties for violating federal law. Several constitutional provisions give Congress substantial authority over the nation’s finances, but no clause discusses a national bank or federal corporations.
Answer: 3. Punishing behaviour that deviates from the terminal behaviour
Explanation: shaping procedure is the process of reinforcing successively closer approximations to a desired terminal behavior. It usually starts by reinforcing a behaviour that the individual already has and in some way related to the terminal (desired) behaviour; this is the first approximaion. After this is strengthened, the reinforcement is extinguished and then the next behaviour which is a closer approximation is strengthened and eventually extinguished.
This process continues with each approximation closer to the terminal behaviour until the terminal behaviour is achieved. For every step or approximation, the previous reinforcement has to be extinguished in order to move the process closer to the end goal, which is the terminal (desired) behaviour.
