Luther viewed salvation as stemming from faith alone as opposed to the catholic belief that taking seven sacraments and good work would lead to salvation
During the Renaissance period, intellectuals view mathematics by believing that mathematics was the key to understanding the nature of things in the universe. It was the key to navigation, military service, and geography. Hope this answers the question.
European countries began finding trade routes to Asia that avoided Ottoman territory (APEX).
B. Govern themselves using agreed upon laws
There is a number of ways that Portugal and other European nations tried to challenge Spanish power:
1. illegal trade with Spanish colonies - given that Spain forbade any nation to trade with their colonies in the Americas, they had to do it illegally, without Spanish knowledge. Smugglers had a special role in this given that they did most of the work
2. pirates - these nations tried to do everything in their power to diminish the authority Spain had in the Americas. This is why they resorted to privateers - that is just a fancy name for pirates who preyed on Spanish ships in order to steal their treasure
