Eukaryotic cells have been confronted throughout their evolution with potentially lethal plasma membrane injuries, including those caused by osmotic stress, by infection from bacterial toxins and parasites, and by mechanical and ischemic stress. The wounded cell can survive if a rapid repair response is mounted that restores boundary integrity. Calcium has been identified as the key trigger to activate an effective membrane repair response that utilizes exocytosis and endocytosis to repair a membrane tear, or remove a membrane pore. We here review what is known about the cellular and molecular mechanisms of membrane repair, with particular emphasis on the relevance of repair as it relates to disease pathologies. Collective evidence reveals membrane repair employs primitive yet robust molecular machinery, such as vesicle fusion and contractile rings, processes evolutionarily honed for simplicity and success. Yet to be fully understood is whether core membrane repair machinery exists in all cells, or whether evolutionary adaptation has resulted in multiple compensatory repair pathways that specialize in different tissues and cells within our body.
The Van der Waal’s forces are the forces, which are formed by the attraction of two opposite charged bodies. This charge exists due to the formation of the dipoles in the molecules or atom. The dipoles formed due to the movement of the electron in the atoms. The strength of the dipole or Van der Waal attraction depends on the size of the atoms or the molecule. As the size increases, the strength of the Van der Waal force increases. The positive and the negative regions are shown in the attached picture.
Answer:
Lactic acid is a common fermentation product in bacteria and animal cells. It is produced after glycolysis when <u>Pyruvate</u> is reduced by electrons received from NADH.
The answer is North Pacific Gyre, just took the test. :)
Instead of in humans ... cell development, plants and animals use mitosis for cell division
