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Engel v. Vitale
LAW CASE
WRITTEN BY: The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica
Engel v. Vitale, case in which the U.S. Supreme Court ruled on June 25, 1962, that voluntary prayer in public schools violated the U.S. Constitution’s First Amendment prohibition of a state establishment of religion.
New York state’s Board of Regents wrote and authorized a voluntary nondenominational prayer that could be recited by students at the beginning of each school day. In 1958–59 a group of parents that included Steven Engel in Hyde Park, New York, objected to the prayer, which read, “Almighty God, we acknowledge our dependence upon Thee, and we beg Thy blessings upon us, our parents, our teachers, and our country,” and sued the school board president, William Vitale. The prayer, which proponents argued was constitutional because it was voluntary and promoted the free exercise of religion (also protected in the First Amendment), was upheld by New York’s courts, prompting the petitioners to file a successful appeal to the U.S. Supreme Court. Engel et al. were supported by the American Civil Liberties Union, and briefs were filed on their behalf by the American Ethical Union and the American Jewish Committee, while the governments of some 20 states called on the U.S. Supreme Court to uphold the prayer.
Oral arguments took place on April 3, 1962. The Supreme Court’s ruling was released on June 25 and found New York’s law unconstitutional by a margin of 6–1 (two justices did not participate in the decision). Hugo L. Black wrote the Supreme Court’s opinion, in which the majority argued “that, by using its public school system to encourage recitation of the Regents’ prayer, the State of New York has adopted a practice wholly inconsistent with the Establishment Clause.” The lone dissent came from Potter Stewart, who argued that the majority had “misapplied a great constitutional principle” and could not understand “how an ‘official religion’ is established by letting those who want to say a prayer say it. On the contrary, I think to deny the wish of these school children to join in reciting this prayer is to deny them the opportunity of sharing in the spiritual heritage of our Nation.” The decision, the first in which the Supreme Court had ruled unconstitutional public school sponsorship of religion, was unpopular with a broad segment of the American public.
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Athens led the Delian League. They taxed the members of the league in exchange for protection from the powerful navy of Athens. However, Athens was gaining power, and under ruler Pericles, they used the money given to them by those who they protected and taxed to create the Golden Age of Athens. At that time, Athens was at the height of its power, and they had many beautiful marble temples, statues, and walls in their city. Eventually, the members of the Leauge figured out and began to resent Athens, Sparta created their own league, and the Peloponnesian War began.
During this war, Sparta ended up victorious over Athens, but afterward, the entirety of Greece was weak. Philip II of Macedonia, the father of the later conqueror of Greece, Alexander the Great, came in with his army and took Greece over.
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Their technology and compasses and stuff stopped working. I d k. I looked it up.
Before Postmodernism the authors that made up the literary canon in the United States were mostly white men.
This literary movement called Modernism (or modernist literature) had a non-traditional style of verse and poetry. The writers from that time felt traditional poetry was outdated, and that new forms of expression and representation had to be done to express new sensibilities and beliefs.
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The farmers in Sumer created levees to hold back the floods from their fields and cut canals to channel river water to the fields. The use of levees and canals is called irrigation, another Sumerian invention
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