The process of fertilization occurs in both plants and animals. There are, of course, differences in the details and mechanisms. On the other hand, some of the similarities are striking. For example, the moss plant has both swimming sperm cells and eggs. In the moss plant, fertilization occurs by the sperm swimming to the egg. Vertebrate animals also carry out reproduction by way of sperm and egg.
One of the differences between plants and animals in this regard is that plants are, for the most part, sedentary. The moss plant depends on rain or very wet conditions in order for the sperm to swim from the male parts of the plant to the egg in the female parts. In the case of animals, the male and female are mobile individuals that physically interact with one another in the process of mating.
<span>he Streptococcus pneumoniae capsule is vital for virulence and may inhibit complement activity and phagocytosis. However, there are only limited data on the mechanisms by which the capsule affects complement and the consequences for S. pneumoniae interactions with phagocytes. Using unencapsulated serotype 2 and 4 S. pneumoniae mutants, we have confirmed that the capsule has several effects on complement activity. The capsule impaired bacterial opsonization with C3b/iC3b by both the alternative and classical complement pathways and also inhibited conversion of C3b bound to the bacterial surface to iC3b. There was increased binding of the classical pathway mediators immunoglobulin G (IgG) and C-reactive protein (CRP) to unencapsulated S. pneumoniae, indicating that the capsule could inhibit classical pathway complement activity by masking antibody recognition of subcapsular antigens, as well as by inhibiting CRP binding. Cleavage of serum IgG by the enzyme IdeS reduced C3b/iC3b deposition on all of the strains, but there were still marked increases in C3b/iC3b deposition on unencapsulated TIGR4 and D39 strains compared to encapsulated strains, suggesting that the capsule inhibits both IgG-mediated and IgG-independent complement activity against S. pneumoniae. Unencapsulated strains were more susceptible to neutrophil phagocytosis after incubation in normal serum, normal serum treated with IdeS, complement-deficient serum, and complement-deficient serum treated with IdeS or in buffer alone, suggesting that the capsule inhibits phagocytosis mediated by FcÎł receptors, complement receptors, and nonopsonic receptors. Overall, these data show that the S. pneumoniae capsule affects multiple aspects of complement- and neutrophil-mediated immunity, resulting in a profound inhibition of opsonophagocytosis.</span>
Co-dominant alleles, in other words because they both appear in the phenotype they are both dominant.
Answer:
A water molecule consists of two hydrogen atoms attached to one of oxygen and its general structure is angular. This is because the oxygen atom, in addition to forming bonds with hydrogen atoms, has two pairs of non-shared electrons.
Standard deviation, really hope this helps you out :)
