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The Columbian exchange, also known as the Columbian interchange, was the widespread transfer of plants, animals, precious metals, commodities, culture, human populations, technology, diseases, and ideas between the New World in the Western Hemisphere, and the Old World in the Eastern Hemisphere, in the late 15th and following centuries. It is named after the Italian explorer Christopher Columbus and is related to the European colonization and global trade following his 1492 voyage. Some of the exchanges were purposeful; some were accidental or unintended. Communicable diseases of Old World origin resulted in an 80 to 95 percent reduction in the number of Indigenous peoples of the Americas from the 15th century onwards, most severely in the Caribbean. The cultures of both hemispheres were significantly impacted by the migration of people from the Old World to the New. African slaves and European colonists replaced the Indigenous populations across the Americas. The number of Africans coming to the New World was far greater than the number of Europeans coming to the New World in the first three centuries after Columbus.
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The Missouri Compromise (1820) was supposed to help settle the issue of slavery in the new territories acquired by the United States. In this compromise, the 36'30 line was established. Any new territory that was added to the US that was north of this line would be considered a free state. Any new territory that was added to the US that was south of this line would be considered a slave state. This line caused a significant problem for California because the 36'30 cut California into two pieces. At this time, having a half free half slave state was not an option. This is why this compromise did not solve the issue of California statehood.
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The philosophers played an important role in the French Revolution. They inspired the common mass of France with their revolutionary ideas and prepared them to fight against injustices.
(ii) They did not believe in the doctrine of the divine and absolute right of the monarch. In his Two Treatises of Government John Locke refuted this doctrine strongly.
(iii) Rousseau carried the idea forward proposing a form of government based on a social contract between people and their representatives.
(iv) In The Spirit of the Laws, Montesquieu proposed a division of power within the government between the legislative, the executive and the judiciary.
(v) The ideas of these philosophers were discussed intensively in salons and coffee-houses and spread among people through books and newspapers. These were frequently read aloud in groups for the benefit of those who were illiterate. Thus, the philosophers contributed a lot in bringing of the French Revolution.