d. Digital rectal examination and PSA testing have been proven ineffective.
Explanation:
The prostate is a small gland in the male reproductive system and is usually the shape and size of a walnut. Current methods to determine if a prostate has become cancerous include a physical exam (known as a digital rectal exam or DRE), magnetic resonance imaging, a biopsy, or tests to determine prostate-specific chemical antigen (PSA) levels in the blood.
Prostate cancer is considered a cancer of the elderly, since most cases are registered in men over 60 years. The most effective techniques for screening for this cancer are annual screening exams - which include the blood-drawn PSA test and digital rectal touch - are recommended for all men aged 50 and over.
