In general, no, Mesopotamia did not fall because of attack from other empires, since it was primarily due to the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers drying up that led to a lack of produce, and therefore a fall in the empire itself.
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In the early 17th century Galileo was indeed convicted of heresy because he claimed that Earth revolved around the Sun. This conviction was an example of an religiously motivated conviction of someone who had the best intentions in mind in the sense of mankind achieving greater knowledge.
Plymouth had much better living conditions because it could focus on agriculture and growth instead of hunting and whaling and similar things. People in Plymouth were much safer and their lives were easier. Also, Plymouth became important later for the ideas of abolitionists making it important for the civil war as an idea in the long run.
The answer is B). They would have been executed for treason. These men were putting their lives at serious risk, because they were trying to gain independence directly against the king's consent.
