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4- What state-building tactics and methods were used by European rulers in the late postclassical era? (Early Modern Era as well!)

The main state-building tactic used in Europe during this era was feudalism.

Feudalism consisted in the limited control of a territory from a monarch, who allied himself with local lords known as feudal lords, and shared power with them to a great extent.

5. How did the bubonic plague (“Black Death”) spread throughout Eurasia?The Bubonic plague spread from China to the Middle East, and then to Europe, due to the trade relations between these regions of the world. The plague was carried by rats, who were very common in ships at the time because of poor sanitary conditions.

In Europe, the plague entered from Italy, and then spread throughout southern Europe.

In a few years, in had already reached the northernmost parts of the continent, like Scandinavia and the British Isles.