Hey Jasmine812!
The Incas used khipu, the system of recording numbers by tying knots on strings! The numbers were indicated by knot type and position on the cord.
I hope this helps!
A.
Hawaii was annexed by the US, and the foreign domination of Africa was done by Europe.
While the Industrial Revolution had both positive and negative effects on society and the economy, the positive effects outweighed the negative. Industrialization resulted in an increase in population, people moved in urban areas in search of jobs and work. This also increased the economy significantly.
People got longer working hours, including an increase in earnings, and due to more poeple moving into these urban areas, companies made more money. Cities grew rapidly and industrys and steam power rapidly strengthened.
In Manchester, the population in 1717 was 100,00, but by 1922, the population grew to over 2,300,00 people. This significantly helped the economy financially, because more people means more spending money.
"The Dialectic of Christianity" first appeared in Culture in History, edited by Stanley Diamond, which was published by Columbia University Press in 1961, and is reprinted with their permission. "The Symbols of Folk Culture" is reprinted with the permission of the copyright holder, The Con- ference on Science, Philosophy and Religion in Their Relation to the Democratic Way of Life, Incorpo- rated, and was written for its thirteenth symposium volume, Symbols and Values: An Initial Study, pub- lished in New York City, in 1954. Acknowledgment is made to the American Folk- lore Society, Inc.
The Tuskegee Study of Untreated Syphilis in the African American Male is the longest nontherapeutic experiment on human beings in medical history, as noted by Arthur L. Caplan (1992). Begun in 1932 by the United States Public Health Service (USPHS), the study was purportedly designed to determine the natural course of untreated latent syphilis in some 400 African American men in Tuskegee, Macon County, Alabama. The research subjects, all of whom had syphilis when they were enrolled in the study-contrary to the “urban myth” that holds “black men in Alabama were injected with the virus that causes syphilis” (Walker, 1992)-were matched against 200 uninfected subjects who served as a control group.
The subjects were recruited with misleading promises of “special free treatment,” which were actually spinal taps done without anesthesia to study the neurological effects of syphilis, and they were enrolled without their informed consent.
The subjects received heavy metals therapy, standard treatment in 1932, but were denied antibiotic therapy when it became clear in the 1940s that penicillin was a safe and effective treatment for the disease. When penicillin became widely available by the early 1950s as the preferred treatment for syphilis, this therapy was again withheld. On several occasions, the USPHS actually sought to prevent treatment.
The first published report of the study appeared in 1936, with subsequent papers issued every four to six years until the early 1970s. In l969, a committee at the federally operated Center for Disease Control decided the study should continue. Only in 1972, when accounts of the study first appeared in the national press, did the Department of Health, Education and Welfare (HEW) halt the experiment.
At that time, 74 of the test subjects were still alive; at least 28, but perhaps more than 100, had died directly from advanced syphilis. An investigatory panel appointed by HEW in August 1972 found the study “ethically unjustified” and argued that penicillin should have been provided to the men. As a result, the National Research Act, passed in 1974, mandated that all federally funded proposed research with human subjects be approved by an institutional review board (IRB). By 1992, final payments of approximately $40,000 were made to survivors under an agreement settling the class action lawsuit brought on behalf of the Tuskegee Study subjects. President Clinton publicly apologized on behalf of the federal government to the handful of study survivors in April 1997.
Several major ethical issues involving human research subjects need to be studied further. The first major ethical issue to be considered is informed consent, which refers to telling potential research participants about all aspects of the research that might reasonably influence their decision to participate. A major unresolved concern is exactly how far researchers’ obligations extend to research subjects. Another concern has to do with the possibility that a person might feel pressured to agree or might not understand precisely what he or she is agreeing to. The investigators took advantage of a deprived socioeconomic situation in which the participants had experienced low levels of care. The contacts were with doctors and nurses who were seen as authority figures.
