Answer:
Charles Darwin (1809–1882)
Context for Darwin:
• Growth of scientific education and institutions
• Declining church attendance and growing secularization
• New social discourses
o Positivism and the growing prestige of science — Auguste Comte (1798–1857), Positive
Philosophy (1830–1842); science as culminating point of human intellectual and social
development.
o Materialism — mental and spiritual forces and cultural ideals were seen to be the product of
physical forces; truth found in material existence, not intuition or feeling.
Darwin’s major contributions and ideas
• On the Origin of Species (1859)
o Theory of natural selection articulated as the principle mechanism through which evolution
occurred; similar ideas were developed nearly simultaneously by Alfred R. Wallace (1823–1913).
o More living organisms came into existence than could survive; variety of species is infinite;
new biological forms emerged from older ones.
o Those species possessing unique traits that made survival possible were thought to have a
marginal advantage; only those well adapted to a specific environment survived to reproduce.
o Life constituted a competitive struggle for existence (some textbooks note Darwin borrowing
ideas for this theory from Thomas Malthus).
• The Descent of Man (1871)
o Discussed implications of natural selection for humans.
o Indicated that the human body, consciousness and religious intuition evolved to ensure the
survival of the species.
o A divine being was not needed to provide an image or model for humanity.
Consequences (challenges to traditional ways of thinking)
• Called into question biblical narrative of creation; challenged traditional Judeo-Christian view of nature
as immutable and humanity as the unique creation of God.
• Challenged Enlightenment perspectives.
o Rejected the idea that nature and society were harmonious by focusing instead on ideas of
competition and continual struggle.
o Undermined assumption that nature was tranquil and noble and humans were univers
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