When analyzed as history, the Mao Zedong era (1949–1978) looks different than it did when scrutinized by social scientists. Ever since the founding of the People’s Republic, contemporary observers have identified an underlying reality at odds with the goals and policies pursued by top leaders in Beijing. That underlying reality, scholars found, was characterized by conflict, tension, and variation. Factionalism divided bureaucratic institutions; mass campaigns failed to achieve their aims; local officials subverted policies; groups pursued their own interests. In other words, state control was not always total or centralized but at times appeared limited and tenuous.
In the 1980s, as the practice of Indian secularism was eroded, India's claim to Kashmir on the grounds of secularism largely came apart. Today their respective claims are mostly on the basis of statecraft.
Control of the Bosporus and Dardanelles straits was a strategic objective in both World War I and World War II because these straits provide access from the Black Sea to the Mediterranean Sea
