The conditioned reinforcers known as tokens can be accumulated and traded for different reinforcers.
Any two suitable examples, such as a compliment, an invitation to dinner, the presence of a loved one, or a warm greeting are all suitable examples. These are all conditioned reinforcers since they are connected to stronger reinforcers. They cannot be accumulated and swapped for different backup reinforcers, hence they cannot be considered tokens.
What is backup reinforcer?
Backup reinforce is a reinforcer that serves as the foundation for a conditioned reinforcer. It is a reinforcer in a token system for which tokens can be traded in order to keep their reinforcing properties. For instance, poker chips can be converted into cash at the conclusion of a game of poker. The money serves as a secondary reinforcer in this situation. It is allowed to use any two relevant examples.
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Answer:
Helper T cells stimulate B-cells to produce antibodies and killer T cells to destroy the non-self cells. Cytotoxic T cells on the other hand are direct attack cells. They can kill the micro organisms by creating pores on the invader's cell.
Explanation:
T lymphocyte mediated immunity of cell mediated immunity do not secrete antibodies but they help stimulate the B cells to produce them. Immature T cells are produced in bone marrow from where they migrate to thymus via blood. In the thymus maturation of T cells occur and then they migrate to lymphoid tissue and get differentiated into three types:
a. Helper T cells: As the name suggests, they help in activating other immune cells, in other terms they are the regulator of virtually all functions of immune system. Protein mediator called lymphokines are produced by these helper T cells in order to regulate the immune functions. Some examples of these lymphokines are: Interleukin-2 interleukin-3, interferon gamma. T helper cells stimulate the B-cells to produce antibodies.
b. Cytotoxic cells or killer T cells: The lymphokine interleukin-2 is responsible for the growth and proliferation of both cytotoxic T cells and suppressor T cells. With the help of receptor proteins on the surface of killer T cells, they bind to the specific antigen. After binding, they secrete a pore forming protein called perforins which create pores on the invaders cell membrane for water to enter into it thereby cell swells and finally lyse.
c. Suppressor T cells: They suppress the function of above two T cells.
Long eyelashes that doesnt allow the sand to get into its eyes
And its ability to store water for long periods of time in its hump
In 1884, a bacteriologist named Christian Gram created a test that could determine if a bacterium had a thick, mesh-like membrane called peptidoglycan. Bacteria with thick peptidoglycan are called gram positive. If the peptidoglycan layer is thin, it's classified as gram negative.
