Answer:
Hepato- and nephrotoxicity of fluoride have been demonstrated in animals, but few studies have examined potential effects in humans. This population-based study examines the relationship between chronic low-level fluoride exposure and kidney and liver function among United States (U.S.) adolescents. This study aimed to evaluate whether greater fluoride exposure is associated with altered kidney and liver parameters among U.S. youth.
This cross-sectional study utilized data from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (2013–2016). We analyzed data from 1983 and 1742 adolescents who had plasma and water fluoride measures respectively and did not have kidney disease. Fluoride was measured in plasma and household tap water. Kidney parameters included estimated glomerular filtration rate (calculated by the original Schwartz formula), serum uric acid, and the urinary albumin to creatinine ratio. Liver parameters were assessed in serum and included alanine aminotransferase, aspartate aminotransferase, alkaline phosphatase, blood urea nitrogen, gamma-glutamyl transferase, and albumin. Survey-weighted linear regression examined relationships between fluoride exposure and kidney and liver parameters after covariate adjustment. A Holm-Bonferroni correction accounted for multiple comparisons.
The average age of adolescents was 15.4 years. Median water and plasma fluoride concentrations were 0.48 mg/L and 0.33 μmol/L respectively. A 1 μmol/L increase in plasma fluoride was associated with a 10.36 mL/min/1.73 m2 lower estimated glomerular filtration rate (95% CI: −17.50, −3.22; p = 0.05), a 0.29 mg/dL higher serum uric acid concentration (95% CI: 0.09, 0.50; p = 0.05), and a 1.29 mg/dL lower blood urea nitrogen concentration (95%CI: −1.87, −0.70; p < 0.001). A 1 mg/L increase in water fluoride was associated with a 0.93 mg/dL lower blood urea nitrogen concentration (95% CI: −1.44, −0.42; p = 0.007).
Fluoride exposure may contribute to complex changes in kidney and liver related parameters among U.S. adolescents. As the study is cross-sectional, reverse causality cannot be ruled out; therefore, altered kidney and/or liver function may impact bodily fluoride absorption and metabolic processes.
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The genotype of the plant is <span>WwXxYyZz.
The plant has a 50% chance of passing each of the alleles of a gene, the dominant or the recessive.
So, for producing the haploid genotype of a gamete </span><span>Wxyz the chance is
0,5 (W)* 0,5 (x)* 0,5 (y) * 0,5( z)= 0,0625
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When the patient who is nothing by mouth (NPO) (no food or fluids allowed) develops an adverse reaction to a new intravenous (IV) drug, then the nurse will take action like recording the reaction, stopping the further administration of the drug and notify the health care provider.
Nothing by mouth (NPO) is a period of time in which the patient is advised not to eat or drink anything. Doctors suggest avoiding eating food or drinking water during the medical or surgical procedure to ensure the correct report or successful operation of the patient.
NPO is a common practice, and it instructs that patients should not take solid and liquid before receiving general anaesthesia.
Learn more about the NPO here
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