Shortly after midnight on this day in 1961, East German soldiers begin laying down barbed wire and bricks as a barrier between Soviet-controlled East Berlin and the democratic western section of the city.
After World War II, defeated Germany was divided into Soviet, American, British and French zones of occupation. The city of Berlin, though technically part of the Soviet zone, was also split, with the Soviets taking the eastern part of the city. After a massive Allied airlift in June 1948 foiled a Soviet attempt to blockade West Berlin, the eastern section was drawn even more tightly into the Soviet fold. Over the next 12 years, cut off from its western counterpart and basically reduced to a Soviet satellite, East Germany saw between 2.5 million and 3 million of its citizens head to West Germany in search of better opportunities. By 1961, some 1,000 East Germans–including many skilled laborers, professionals and intellectuals–were leaving every day.
In August, Walter Ulbricht, the Communist leader of East Germany, got the go-ahead from Soviet Premier Nikita Khrushchev to begin the sealing off of all access between East and West Berlin. Soldiers began the work over the night of August 12-13, laying more than 100 miles of barbed wire slightly inside the East Berlin border. The wire was soon replaced by a six-foot-high, 96-mile-long wall of concrete blocks, complete with guard towers, machine gun posts and searchlights. East German officers known as Volkspolizei (“Volpos”) patrolled the Berlin Wall day and night.
Many Berlin residents on that first morning found themselves suddenly cut off from friends or family members in the other half of the city. Led by their mayor, Willi Brandt, West Berliners demonstrated against the wall, as Brandt criticized Western democracies, particularly the United States, for failing to take a stand against it. President John F. Kennedy had earlier said publicly that the United States could only really help West Berliners and West Germans, and that any kind of action on behalf of East Germans would only result in failure.
Open primaries are where voters don't have to declare party affiliation.
Closed primaries are for affiliated party members.
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All-Black towns grew in Indian Territory after the Civil War when the former slaves of the Five Tribes settled together for mutual protection and economic security.
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The fact that McCarthyism was so widespread and powerful tells us that American anxiety was extremely strong back then. After the World War II, the U.S. were victorious, but so were the Soviets. So, the two great economic and political powers opposed each other from the ideological point of view: communist vs. capitalist propaganda took place. McCarthyism didn't just try to protect the American way of life and capitalist ideology. It ascertained that everyone who wasn't for it was in fact against it, thereby declaring enemies everywhere, instilling fear and paranoia into every citizen. In the course of establishing the cultural notion of "American dream", the red anti-capitalist discourse (which had already been present in popular culture) was unwelcome and had to be banished.
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1. god 2. four noble truth 7. Chandragupta Maurya 8. Christians 9. heredity
10. Shunga Empire 11. Hinduism 12. the Golden Age 13-15. Giving a great presentation at work, Beating sales targets, Training for and completing a marathon.
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