The answer is energy. In order to grow and develop, all of life must be able to use energy to sustain the source of life. The ability to reproduce, grow and develop are defining features of life. Organisms use energy to maintain their metabolic processes.
<u>Helper t-cells</u> identify antigens and then multiply and trigger the production of other kinds of immune cells.
<h3>What are helper T-cells?</h3>
Helper T-cells are one of the main types of immune cells. They detect infections and activate other immune cells to fight the infection.
Your thymus develops helper T-cells. The thymus is a small gland in the front of your chest. The other types of T-cells include:
- Cytotoxic T-cells, which fight infections.
- Regulatory T-cells, which regulate or suppress other immune cells when needed.
- NKT-cells, which can enhance immunity in general.
<h3>What are the subtypes of helper T-cells?</h3>
When helper T-cells detect an infection, they form into one of two subtypes:
- TH1 helper cells release a molecule that activates a type of cell called a macrophage. Macrophages are specialized cells that help eliminate foreign substances from your body. TH1 cells also activate cytotoxic T-cells.
- TH2 helper cells release molecules that activate B-cells. B-cells create antibodies. They also release cells that cause coughing, sneezing or diarrhea to help your body get rid of foreign substances. This group of T-cells helps generate allergy antibodies.
Learn more about helper T-cells
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The answer to an <span>action potential an all-or-none response to stimuli </span>voltage-gated ion channels open when membrane potential passes a particular level
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The structure of a typical antibody molecule
Antibodies are the secreted form of the B-cell receptor. An antibody is identical to the B-cell receptor of the cell that secretes it except for a small portion of the C-terminus of the heavy-chain constant region. In the case of the B-cell receptor the C-terminus is a hydrophobic membrane-anchoring sequence, and in the case of antibody it is a hydrophilic sequence that allows secretion. Since they are soluble, and secreted in large quantities, antibodies are easily obtainable and easily studied. For this reason, most of what we know about the B-cell receptor comes from the study of antibodies.
Antibody molecules are roughly Y-shaped molecules consisting of three equal-sized portions, loosely connected by a flexible tether. Three schematic representations of antibody structure, which has been determined by X-ray crystallography, are shown in Fig. 3.1. The aim of this part of the chapter is to explain how this structure is formed and how it allows antibody molecules to carry out their dual tasks—binding on the one hand to a wide variety of antigens, and on the other hand to a limited number of effector molecules and cells. As we will see, each of these tasks is carried out by separable parts of the molecule. The two arms of the Y end in regions that vary between different antibody molecules, the V regions. These are involved in antigen binding, whereas the stem of the Y, or the C region, is far less variable and is the part that interacts with effector cells and molecules.
